Part 1: Climb Preparation
In preparing for a climb, several factors have to be taken into consideration by the prospective climber. No backpacker-beginner or expert-can ignore physical fitness in preparing for a climb. A certain level of fitness is required for a pleasant and safe climb. In order to enjoy the scenery and the company of fellow backpackers, one must be fit to keep up with them. The lack of preparation has made a lot of potentially great climbs end in total disaster.Physical Fitness
To help you in preparing for a climb, we have listed down some guidelines:- All participants of the climb must be physically fit. The best type of fitness program involves continuous endurance training through aerobic sports such as running, swimming, cycling and walking.
- Weight training is the perfect supplement to an aerobic program. This will help you develop your muscular strength and endurance.
- Any participant in a climb who gets sick before the climb should forego his participation. A sick climber becomes a liability to the group.
- An old adage says that the best exercise for mountaineering is mountaineering. The hardiest hikers and climbers are those who spend a great deal of their time hiking, backpacking and climbing.
- Being fit gives you the confidence to tackle climbs, such that psyching up come almost naturally.
Part 2: The Pre-Climb Meet
Planning A Climb
The success of an expedition depends largely upon the amount of planning given to the activity. The different components that make up a climb are discussed during the pre-climb meeting. In preparing for a climb, a plan to climb must first be submitted and approved by the officers of the organization in order to be a designated as an official climb.The organizers of the climb should serve notice to the members at least one week beforehand. This is to ensure that the participants have enough time to prepare for the climb. Announcements should include the objective, nature, requirements and itinerary of the climb. These announcements are to be posted at the organization’s Bulletin Board and in emails.
Organizational regulations require that all the participants of the climb conduct a pre-climb meeting at least three (3) days before the start of the climb. The pre-climb is a comprehensive study, presentation and discussion of the essential parts of conducting a climb. Its format should include the following items:
The Objectives of the Climb
Talking about the nature of the climb is organizing the trips into specific categories.Minor Climbs - these are mountains that could be easily trekked within a four or six hour peroid. Basically the trek is simple, light and easy. Because of this, they are also called fun climbs or overnight climbs. These climbs are most favored by urbanites for their recreational purposes.
Major Climbs - these are mountains with a higher degree of difficulty. The trip could take three or more days with an average trekking time of seven or more hours per day. These climbs are more favored by full time mountaineers because it tests their abilities and skills to survive and to discover more of mother natures secrets.
The next categories can be engaged on either minor or major climbs:
Training Climbs - the primary purpose of these climbs is to meet the training requirements of the applicants of the club. The organizers provides it’s applicants with a progressive climbing program which gradually trains and prepares them for harder ascents.
Guideship Climbs - these are climbs where you have paying clients that are guided up a mountian of their choice. LNT are also taught in every participants.
Clean-Up Climbs - the primary purpose of these climbs is to help preserve and maintain highly impacted mountains and campsites. This means bringing down garbage left by indiscriminate climbers, tree planting on barren slopes and trail maintinance work to prevent further soil erosion.
Exploratory Climbs - these are climbs wherein no routes exists and are established and ascended for the first time. These are the type of climbs that demand a great deal of planning and preparation. Exploratory Climbs are further discussed in U.P. Mountaineers Advance Mountaineering Courses (AMC)
Making Courtesy Calls
Before heading off into the backcountry, it’s important to make your intentions known to the nearest Barangay or local government official. This way the town folk will not be alarmed by the presence of strangers in their area. Remember that diplomacy can go a long way. You will also be oriented by the locals about the general security of the area and general condition of the route that you will be taking. Find out if there’s any park fee that needs to be addresses before going up the area.Route Planning
Route planning basicaly tackles all the aspects involved in bringing the team safely and efficiently to and from the backcountry. The route plan has two areas of concern.Trip to the jump-off point: Is the process of getting the team and their gear from the city to the area at the foot of the mountain where the actual trekking begins. This topic is further discussed in BMC1 Part 3
Climb Proper: It is how will the team move about thru the backcountry to fulfill their objectives and back down again, safely and efficiently. You will learn this in detail when you take up your lessons in UPM BMC 3 Land Navigation. While making the route plan you will also be able to develop and identify the following concerns of the planning and preparation phase. These are:
- The itinerary.
- Transportation to be used to and from the expedition.
- Possible lodging.
- The budget of the whole trip.
- The amount of food to prepare and bring.
- The type of equipment that must be brought along.
All of these will also be further discussed in detail as you go along thru the lessons. To help you out while developing the route plan, you can get the necessary information from the following sources. The information that you acquire during this stage of the planning process is fully utilized most especially during first time trips by the team to untravelled sitios, barrios and local regions.
- Notes from the scribes of previous expeditions.
- Interviews from mountaineers and guides who have climbed the area.
- Guidebooks, tourbooks, and other similar text, e.G.- “The Lonely Planet”
- Topographic maps, road maps, and such. These are usually used with the help of a compass.
- Acquired notes made from an ocular trip made by one or two members of the team to the possible “jump off point” a few weeks or months earlier than the given schedule for the trip.
- In this day and age, you could try going thru the internet and check out various local web sites offering adventure tours and alike.
- You can try making an inquiry to the department of tourism, department of environment and natural resources or similar regional, local and non government offices.
- The value of the compass and the topographic maps is limitless especially when it comes to establishing new routes and first ascents on unexplored areas of the mountains.
With such information at hand the team can familiarize themselves with most aspects of the expedition even before leaving the city. The team can then move efficiently and safely through the trip.
The Itinerary of the Climb
The itinerary is basically a detailed breakdown plan of the journey to be undertaken. It should contain all the vital information and contact numbers of every person involved in the team and local contacts. The value of having an itinerary is realized in keeping up with schedules to avoid unnecessary discomforts such as being forced to do late treks or to set up camp in the dark.Programming activities maximizes efficient use of time. In multi-day ascents or exploratory climbs, the *itinerary is usually formulated based on the study of the map which provides an approximation of the distances to travel. The amount of gear and provisions required is determined by the established itinerary.
Climb Organization
The Team Leader: The team leader is selected according to his/her familiarity with the mountain and his/her leadership potential. He /She is given an almost absolute role in decision making on that climb. However, he/she should also be open-minded enough to accept suggestions, especially on decisions involving the safety of the party. The Team leader is responsible to select the team’s Contact Person.The Medic: The medic should have a thorough knowledge of first aid techniques. The medic is responsible to bring most of the needed first aid kit.
The Scribe: The scribe has the duty of documenting the details of the climb.
The Tail: Also known as the “sweeper” who is responsible of bringing up the rear. This person must possess the patience and ability to motivate people and is familiar with the area.
The Contact Person: The contact person should be present during the pre-climb and has a copy of the itinerary. Is also responsible for activating a search and rescue team if the team is not contacted within twenty-four (24) hours of the estimated date/time of arrival.
Subdividing a team into smaller groups
Subdividing into smaller groups of five to seven members increases the safety factor during a climb. It also facilitates the sharing of shelter and other equipment. It is easier to plan and prepare meals for smaller groups. Large groups require large and heavy cooking utensils. Small groups shall have a group leader who is responsible for the management of his/her members.Budgeting
An essential part of climbing is determining the approximate cost of transportation, possible lodging, meals and other expenses. Each member usually pays for his/her transportation fare. Each member of a group is assigned with a certain meal to prepare.A certain individual may be assigned to prepare a certain meal during the climb. The cost of all the meals is summed up and payments are settled later (usually in the post-climb meeting). Other expenses like spare batteries, trail food, etc. are for the account of the individual mountaineer, unless discussed otherwise by the group members.
Meal Planning
The amount of food to be carried on an expedition is determined by the length of stay in the wild plus extra rations in case of emergencies. All the members of the team must avoid buying meal requirements at the jump-off point because the presence of ingredients, stores or markets in the area is uncertain. The type and amount of food to be used and brought can be determined by the following guidelines.- Nutritional value - Meals should be able to provide and replenish the energy requirements of the climber. This means packing a lot of carbohydrates with protein and fat rich food. It also must be easy to digest to facilitate faster replenishment of lost energy
- Multi-day ascents require meals that will not spoil easily. Food can be preserved through drying, pickling and salting. Food treated with spices and vinegar usually lasts for days. There are also meals which can’t spoil quickly (See Appendix for details)
- Meals should not be limited to pre-packaged food or canned goods. The creative outdoorsman can come up with a hundred different ways of preparing nutritious and delicious meals in the wild. Keep in mind however that the wise backpacker will design menus which will use light ingredients and easy to prepare with a minimal amount of cooking time involved. Canned tomato sauce may be replaced by powdered tomato paste. Soup mixes are lighter than their canned versions. By using light ingredients, you will be able to lessen your load.
- Consider the food preference if any of your team members has dietary needs, allergic reaction and religious limits.
- A kilo of rice would be the standard amount for 6 people in every meal.
- Design your meal which uses minimal amounts of water, cooking oil, cooking time and waste products.
- Let the food cool first before packing it this prevents the food from spoiling quickly.
- Moisture is one of the reason vegetables rot easily. If you are bringing one, have it is covered with paper to prolong it's life.
Trail Food
Trail meals are helpful in eliminating hunger and exhaustion during trekking. It can even act as your main meal if you fail to eat during meal time due to delayed itineraries. Trail food should meet 3 requirements:- It should not induce thirst, since it would induce the climber to consume more water.
- Nutritious and must satisfy your body’s energy requirements. Sweets in general, meet the criteria but may require some catabolic conversions before your body can use it as a fuel.
- Easy to prepare and should require little or no cooking at all. Time and fuel constraints must be considered. Samples of trail food: Crackers, nuts, candies, chocolates, fresh or dried fruits, corn flakes, pre-packed gelatins and the eternal G.O.R.P. (Good Old Raisins and Peanuts).
Part 3: Trip to the jump-off point
In every trip, it is important to know the means of transportation the team will be utilizing to get a basic idea of how much the budget will be allotted for an expedition. Always consider the number of participants and their backpacks.Here are general guidelines to keep you abreast:
- If you’re susceptible to motion sickness, do bring and take the necessary medication an hour or two before the ride. Prepare yourself of the discomforts of third world traveling. It’s usually bumpy and dirty and anything can happen.
- Avoid wearing any jewelry or flashy wristwatches, it attracts crime. Keep your jacket accessible instead.
- If possible, make a reservation or buy your tickets beforehand. Inquire about cargo fees and excess baggage fees. Some liners charge fees for bikes and backpacks.
- Assign a member to be the “load master” or “watcher” to manage the loading and unloading of gear. This also heightens the security of all equipment.
- At every station, be considerate that chairs and tables are meant for people and not your backpack.
- It is always an advantage arriving at a station early so you can reserve (only If it is allowed) seating spaces.
- Basic rule in loading: always prioritize the large packs first. Smaller packs are easier to mount just in case space is not available anymore.
- Whether the team is a small group or large one, always seat yourselves together.
- Some transports will load your packs on a roof rack. Make sure your packs are waterproofed. All cash and valuables should be hand-carried in one bag. Some climbers bring elastic cords for extra securing.
- When renting out any means of transport, check if it is in top form to bring you to the jump off point. Having a roof rack is always a plus. Make sure that you agreed on a reasonable price before moving on. Most drivers allow you to pay the other half when you get to your destination.
Buses
- Utilize the bottom carriage for your pack only if is free of holes and leaks on the floor.
- If the bottom compartment is already full and you have no choice but to bring the pack into the bus, head towards the very back of the bus. Most buses have ample space for your pack either in front of your seat or behind it.
- The team can also utilize the isle for pack space just make sure that you leave enough space for other passengers to pass through
Jeepneys
- There are provincial jeep rides that allow passengers to ride on top of roof racks, given the chance, make sure you won’t fall during the experience.
Tricycles, Habal-habal and Sky Lab
- Motorbikes that are “interesting” to use if it is the only transport available. Keep in mind that your packs can also consume another seat.
Airplanes
- Place rock climbing equipment and hardware at the top section of your pack for easy access because it is always subjected to inspection.
- All kinds of stove fuel, pressurized containers, lighters, nail cutters, pocket knives are subject to confiscation.
- If applicable, disassemble stoves and let it dry and leave the cap open before you pack it so no “fuel odor” will emit lessening the inspection hassles.
- If you can manage, try to “hand-carry” most of your equipment (other than stoves) to lessen an overweight pack. Most air liners allow up to 7 kilos as long it’s not bulky.
Ship Liners, Ferry Boats and Pump Boats
- Know before hand how long the trip is going to be so you can bring some “creature comforts” to pass the time away.
- Inquire if your ticket includes meals and beddings for the duration of the trip. If meals are not included, bring your own meals. ship meals are usually expensive.
- Some shipping lines confiscate stove fuel, pressurized containers, lighters and pocket knives.
- It’s an advantage to travel at least in pairs. If your traveling alone and you need to leave your pack, hide it where it is “hard to reach” or clip it to a bedding’s bar and cover with a malong or ground sheet. Always bring most of your cash and valuables with you.
- Bringing a hammock is a plus just in case you ran out of a seat or bed.
- Keep your jacket and sleeping bag accessible as sometimes a ship’s airconditioning can really get cold.
- Smaller boats are generally more vulnerable to strong motion sickness so prepare.
- During bad weather, be advised that small boats are kept docked by local officials.
- When renting out a pump boat, having a tarp roof is a plus so you won’t get “toasted” under the sun.
- If your gear gets wet, wash it with fresh water as soon as possible. Salt stains when it dries up.
Part 4: Climb Proper
Group Formation
During the trek, there are some conventions followed regarding group formation. Some are listed below:- The lead man is always in front and is responsible for pacing the group, while the Tail is responsible for bringing up the rear.
- Formation on narrow trails should be single file. Overtaking should be avoided but if a “need” arises, inform the climber in front of you that you need to overtake in a courteous way.
- The ideal distance between two climbers is approximately two (2) meters. This gap will give climbers some space in which to negotiate the trail and proceed along the group’s pace.
- Large groups can do “compression stops” to close long gaps between fellow climbers. Trekking together heightens the safety factor. Compression stops are not rest stops.
Trail Signals
- The signal for stopping is one long whistle blasts - and to commence trekking, two short whistle blasts.
- The lead and tail men are the only persons who can give orders to stop or proceed.
- The international mountaineering distress signal is six (6) blasts to a minute. To signal aid is on the way, give (3) blasts to a minute.
Pacing
- Always start with a slow pace to slowly warm up your muscles. Then gradually change your pace to the group’s desired pace.
- Maintain a steady rhythm while trekking. When negotiating steep slopes, keep the rhythm (pace) by shortening your strides. On level ground, maintain the rhythm by taking longer strides.
- Do not allow anyone to lag behind. An isolated climber heightens the risk factor in an expedition.
- Should there be a need to stop, inform the lead or tail man so that he or she can give the appropriate order to stop.
- The pace of the group should be that of the slowest member or the person who has the heaviest load. This prevents a large team spread along the trail in very long gaps. In some cases, a struggling or an injured climber can be deployed at the rear part ONLY if he/she will trek with his/her groupmates.
Trekking Techniques
In negotiating the trail, some techniques must be kept in mind in order to provide the safest and least difficult route to the summit or objective. Some guidelines are mentioned here.- The ridge line is preferred in route finding. Avoid waterways and gullies since water always takes the steepest route down the mountain.
- Prevent muddy spots from turning into 10-20 foot wide mud highways. Be sure to stay on the trail if it is muddy or wet. If you walk around the mud the trail will widen and become even muddier in the future. Mud is part of the backcountry challenge. Expect it. Hike through it. It is not that difficult. You can even use a stick, walking staff or trek pole to help gauge the depth of the mud and to help you with balance.
- Foot prints will also tell you how deep a mud is. It’s faster to step on someone’s foot print than exploring an alternative path. On steep trails, boot skid marks also tells you that someone already “slipped here” so avoid it if you can. If your boot got stuck on the mud, just step backwards to let it free.
- Logs are generally slippery especially when wet so the option of walking on the ground beside the log lessens the chances for you to have an accident.
- If a log or a fallen tree is blocking the trail: check if it is safe to pass, either crawl under or walk over by stepping on joints of branches. If it is not pasable, make a detour.
- If a log is quite high to step on, you can sit on the log and make a pivoting move by moving your both legs over the log, these lessens the strain on your legs.
Descending
- Reposition heavy items (mostly wet clothes or tent) at the bottom part of your pack prevents pushing your head first to the ground when you lose balance.
- To maintain balance and traction during descent, learn to dig first with your heel or the side of your foot.
- When there is a need to hold on roots or vines, first test if they are sturdy enough to carry your weight and that they do not have any thorns.
- If the terrain is too steep and slippery, face the wall and step downwards as if you are going down a ladder.
River Crossing
River crossings can be dangerous. Depth and strength of the current will affect your movement in the water. It is therefore important to assess the need to cross the river before proceeding. Check the area for other avenues to get safely across like natural bridges or shallower portions. If you are in any doubt as to the safety of a river, you should not attempt a crossing. Certain precautions can be taken when crossing a river becomes necessary:- Loosen shoulder strap, unfasten your hipbelt and sternum strap when crossing rivers and streams - whether a log bridge, over rocks or through the water itself. This will allow you to remove your backpack quickly in case you fall into the water. Backpacks tend to float and will trap your body which is less bouyant (forcing you) under the water.
- Bend your knees and face the incoming current for better balance. Cross in a diagonal line of the river so you are able to see any approaching debris.
- Wet and mossy rocks (usually green) are very slippy so AVOID stepping directly on top of it. Set your foot “in between” rocks instead for better grip. In case your foot got stuck in between rocks, pull it by stepping backwards.
- Face the current. Water carries floating debris downstream which may hit you if you are unaware or not paying attention.
- When crossing alone in knee-deep water, it is advisable to make use of a stick. This will help you maintain your balance by acting as your third leg and will also function as a prod to check what is under the water.
- When crossing in groups, hold hands and cross in a triangular formation in threes. This will help you maintain balance and deflect the current. Again loosen shoulder strap, unfasten your hipbelt and sternum strap as the group crosses.
- When the water exceeds waist level, the use of a rope is recommended. A rope is strung across the body of the water diagonally downstream and used as a guide for the members crossing. Climbers should stay on the downstream side.
- When strung perpendicularly to the current, ropes tend to sag in the middle when loaded – which will hinder movement. It is also advisable to remove your backpack before crossing, to lessen the drag. It will be easier and safer to pull it across later, after crossing.
- Flash Floods - Flash floods are lethal. Do not attempt to cross during a flashflood. The water current can turn deadly very quickly and often without any warning. The strong and fast current often carry large debris that can sweep you into the river even if you are crossing with the assistance of a rope line, trekking poles or locked arms with a fellow trekker. It is best to be cautious and wait on higher ground for the flash flood to subside as it does not last for very long. Flash floods are often preceded by a sudden heavy downpour or a long spell of rain. The color of the water may turn from clear to the color of light tea or beer to coffee. There are no observable audible signs as they may be drowned out by the sound of rain, and they are observable visually only when they are full-blown and thus already Deadly. (The occurrence of flash floods may intensify in frequency due to denudation of mountain slopes, quarrying, river silting, obstructions to the normal flow of waterways and the increasing intensity and frequency of storms due to Global Warming and Climate Change.)
Rests
The interval between different stops will usually depend on the difficulty of the terrain encountered. Some guidelines are listed below:- Treks on level ground - five (5) minutes rest for every hour of hiking.
- Ascents - five (5) minutes rest for every thirty (30) minutes of hiking; on steep slopes - five (5) minutes rest for every fifteen (15) minutes of hiking.
- Descents - five (5) minutes of rest for every hour of hiking.
- During rest periods, do not sit or lie down at once. Keep standing at least thirty (30) seconds to allow your pulse to normalize before sitting down. Drinking too much too quickly will induce an abrupt lowering of your body temperature. When the Team Leader signals for the resumption of the trek check your equipment and immediate surroundings before packing-up and heed the signal of the lead man promptly.
Trail Signs
There will be times when you have to communicate with other members of your team or even other teams during a climb through the use of natural materials to make trail signs. The use of colored ribbons and straws are easily seen but it is discouraged because of its visual impact on the environment.Go this way:
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Don’t go this way:"Block the wrong trail with twigs or grass only.
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Danger:
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Trail Etiquette
| When trailblazing, avoid the indiscriminate cutting of vegetation. Do not leave hack marks as trail signs on trees. Keep trailblazing to a minimum to preserve the natural state of the wilderness. Inform the person behind you of imminent obstacles or dangers along the path. |
| When the group is unsure of the proper path toward the objective, the team should take a break to allow several members scout for the right trail or path. |
| Side trails not in use should be closed off to prevent others from using them. This can be done by blocking the path with sticks or branches. |
| "Short-cutting" a switchback is bad trail etiquette because it kills vegetation and loosens soil creating a new trail straight up and down the hill, which will in time get large and hollowed out from erosion. Do your part to keep our trails beautiful and control erosion. |
| Do not litter. If you find litter on the trail, pick it up. |
| Smoking on the trail or during short rests is strictly prohibited. |
| Inform the person in front of you if they dropped anything on the trail or if you notice loose straps, flaps, belts and knots on their clothes, packs or shoes that may have come loose during the trek. |
| If you get lost, do not panic. Asses your position and then take the necessary steps to find the correct route. Remember S.T.O.P. means: Stop, Think, Observe and Plan. More on land navigation are taught in the U.P. Mountaineers BMC 3 Lecture. |
| In the event of an accident, keep the victim comfortable and relaxed. Administer first-aid and if possible, transfer the person to the nearest clinic or hospital. |
Part 5: The Post-Climb Meet
An essential part of the climbing experience is the climb’s assessment. This is where the participants of the climb give their personal feedback on the climb. The team should meet within five (5) days after the climb to review the strong and weak points of the climb to allow for tempers to cool to have an objective and accurate analysis during the assessment. All the participants of the climb are required to attend the post-climb meeting.The team leader presides at the meeting while the scribe takes down the notes. For future reference, the scribe fills up the Climb Report Form and submit it to the secretariat for filling within two (2) days after the assessment. As a rule, all group equipment must be returned during the post-climb meeting.
The whole discussion will begin from the time the climb was announced, to the conducting of the pre-climb meeting, trip to the jump-off, climb proper, descent and the trip home. The most important aspect should be discussed are those incidents that went wrong during the whole activity. The team must identify the factors that contributed to the occurrence of the incident. The team must also discuss on how and what needs to be done to prevent it from happening again. Always remember to have an open mind and an attitude to improve yourself.
Part 6: Leave No Trace Principle (LNT)
Plan Ahead and Prepare:- Know the area and what to expect.
- Repackage food to minimize waste.
- Select appropriate equipment.
- Respect other visitor’s desire for solitude.
- Learn about local habitats and what it takes to protect them.
Camp and Travel on Durable Surfaces:
- Concentrate use in resistance areas. Avoid places where impact is just beginning.
- Camp away from existing water. Conserve water. Avoid polluting water sources.
Dispose of waste properly:
- Bring out inorganic and organic waste, including food scraps.
- Carry out litter left by others. Dispose of human waste responsibly.
- Minimize soap and food scraps in wastewater.
Leave What You Find:
- Protect cultural resources, including archaeological artifacts.
- Avoid damaging live trees and plants. Leave natural objects.
Minimize Campfire Impacts:
- Fires are sometimes appropriate, but firewood selection, gathering and use, as well as careful campfire site selection and fire tending are critical to minimizing impact.
Respect Wildlife:
- Enjoy Wildlife at a Distance, Never Feed Wildlife, Store Food Securely, Minimize Noise, Avoid Sensitive Habitat, Avoid disturbing wildlife.
Be considerate of other visitors:
- Avoid Conflicts
- Minimize Crowding
- Respect the Privacy of Other Visitors
- Let Nature’s Sounds Prevail.
Part 7: Water Management
Ideally this should be the standard amount of water to bring for an overnight climb. Each individual is required to bring 5 liters of water. The breakdown is as follows:1 Liter – trail water
2 liters – personal use
2 liters – group use
Water Discipline
There are times when you are tempted from “sneek drinks” from the assigned group water and later ending short of a pint or two to finish off cooking your rice and for your groups’ consumption.- Make sure you are fully hydrated before starting the trek.
- Avoid drinking in huge gulps but in sips instead also learn to tolerate a certain period of hours without any water intake, two hours at best.
- It will be your responsibility to bring extra load of water if it’s in your nature to consume a lot of water.
- When you do run out of water, look for a water source; this will be discussed further on U.P. Mountaineer’s Basic Mountaineering Course 3 Land Navigation.
Water Treatment
When water sources are “suspicious” and needs precautionary measures to be done, these are the options that you can do:
| Filter murky or colored water through clean cloths or allow it to settle. It is better to both settle and filter. |
| Boiling is the surest method to make water safe to drink and kill disease-causing microorganisms like Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium, which are frequently found in rivers and lakes. |
| Boil filtered and settled water vigorously for one minute, at altitudes above one mile, boil for three minutes. Tincture of iodine. For cloudy water add ten drops for every liter and let the solution stand for at least 30 minutes. |
| To improve the flat taste of boiled water, aerate it by pouring it back and forth from one container to another and allow it to stand for a few hours, (or add a pinch of salt for each quart or liter of water boiled.) |
| You can use tincture of iodine or Betadine to disinfect filtered and settled water. Common household iodine from the medicine chest or first aid kit may be used to disinfect water (Remember, 1/8 teaspoon and 8 drops are about the same quantity.) Treated water has medicinal after taste so you can add powdered juice to overwhelm it. |
| Water Filters. There are a number of devices on the market that filter out microorganisms. A water filter pumps water through a microscopic filter that is rated for a certain-size organism. The standard size rating is the micron (the period at the end of this sentence is about 600 microns). Depending on the micron rating of the filter, smaller organisms (like viruses) can pass through so be cautious when selecting a filter. |
Emergency Disinfection of Drinking Water-U.S. Environmental Protection Committee
Outdoor Action Program Guide to Water Purification The Backpacker's Field Manual by Rick Curtis first edition published by Random House March, 1998
Part 8: Garbage Management
Trash at jump-off points
- Trash of any kind should not be left at jump-off points. It should be brought back to the city for proper disposal. In some rural areas, the usual mode of disposing trash is by burning, burying and even dumping in waterways. It is better that we know where our trash goes.
- We also do not want to reinforce the locals’ behavior of collecting trash from climbers. If the locals keep on collecting trash from visitors, sooner or later, their dumping pits would not be able hold the garbage that climbers bring. Politely refuse if a local asks you to leave your trash in their pits. But if they tell you that they intend to recycle the plastic containers and tin cans, give your recyclabes to them. Giving them these items is better than bringing these back home and just throwing these away.
Individual Trash
Individual trash is better than group trash. Small amount of trash is easier to carry than large ones. Since you will be bringing your trash back home, it would be unfair for the individual who is in charge of the group’s trash to bring it home with him/her.- Every member of the group should be responsible for his/her own garbage. We want to instill responsibilty for our own trash among our members.
Other climbing team's trash
- Pick up trash you see along the way.
- When you see trash left by other climbers on the campsite, bring them with you for proper disposal. Inform appropriate barangay officials of the misconduct you noted so that in the future, they will be more stringent in checking if climbers brought down their trash with them.
Garbage Segregation
- Practice garbage segregation even in the outdoors. This is one small step we can easily do for the environment.
- Do not bury your garbage in the outdoors even if some of it is biodegradable. Food items left in campsite would attract animals and ants. You would not want to pitch your tent near an ant hill the next time you camp out in that same place.
Part 9: Climbing Checklist
Familiarity with the equipment used in mountaineering is a requirement for any serious outdoorsman. Bringing the right equipment will spell the difference between a comfortable night’s rest and a miserable, sometimes disastrous, night in the wild. For this course, we will discuss the items that should go into your backpack for a comfortable and safe stay in the wild. We will also discuss attire for trekking and the proper care and maintenance of equipment. Bringing military-issued equipment is discouraged.Here is a suggested checklist format but remember that “what works for you might not work for others”. You can make your own version of checklist in due time. Climbing items has 9 categories: Essentials, Group Equipment, Clothing and Sleeping Gear, Food Provisions, Survival Kit or Emergency Rations, First Aid Kit, Repair Kit, Toiletries, and Optional Items. They are as follows:
Essentials
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There are two types of materials or fabrics used to fabricate boots used in tropical climates, the all-leather boot and the lightweight boot. The all leather boot is usually sturdier, more supportive and water repellant, but is warm and heavy. The lightweight boot is lighter and cooler but less water resistant and provides less ankle support. A boot with a low impact sole is to be preferred to a boot an aggressive sole. These new soles provide good traction while helping minimize your impact upon the trail and help prevent erosion. |
| The Internal Frame Pack: Are designed to hug the body more closely and give the arms room to move. They provide good balance on steep ascents and ease of movement when moving along narrow trails. Features like lumbar pads increase comfort and compression straps help balance the load in the sack. Since an internal frame pack is supported only by two parallel stays, you must balance your load with more care than you would when using an external. See Parts of an Internal Frame Pack |
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| An example is the Swiss Army Knife. It often has other accessories such as a can opener, a saw, a screwdriver and other useful tools. The blade is used for cutting rope, cooking, whittling and other camp chores. See Care of the folding knife |
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Group Equipment
The group equipment is divided among the members of the group. Each is assigned a specific equipment to bring. If a climber fails to participate in the climb because he/she got sick, it is his/her responsibility to bring his/her assigned group equipments and group food to the assembly place before the climb.
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Clothing and Sleeping Gear
The type and amount of clothing to bring on a trek depends on the length of the trek and the conditions you expect to encounter. Outdoor clothing should be able to provide protection against the elements.Avoid wearing or using neon colored clothing and equipment. Studies show that because it isn’t a natural color, some species of fauna become stressed just by seeing it and can disturb their natural behavioral pattern.
No of days + 1 - Mountaineers follow this rule to avoid excessive clothes. Bundle it per day on separate ziplock plastic bags.
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Food Provisions
- Trail Food
- Packed Lunch: A climber can avoid cooking food at the early stages of hiking due to time constraints. It weighs lighter if it is placed in a resealable plastic bag than in a hard plastic case.
- Fuel for the stove: For an overnight climb, every person must bring the standard amount of fuel. You can bring extra amount of liquid fuel into the stove if you need to be extra sure.
Liquid Type Fuel - Gas, Kerosene, White Gas, Watch Cleaner and Lighter Fluid = 11 fl. oz. or 325 ml. or roughly 2 containers e.g. Fuji
Cartridge Type Fuel - Bluette, Camping Gaz etc= 2 containers
- Cooking Oil: Used cooking oil will be brought down by using a PET bottle.
- Group Food: Take advantage of using re-sealable plastic bags and containers to minimize trash but label your plastic containers for multi-day trips so that you won’t forget what’s inside. Remove paper labels from cans and use a marker to write down the brand.
- Rice and Eggs:The rice placed inside a plastic container cushions the eggs in your pack. Waterproof the eggs individually before putting it inside the container so if the eggs crack, it will not spill.
- Cooksets: Varies in forms and sizes. It is also made of aluminum, stainless steel or titaium. Some cooksets already have Teflon coating (non-stick surface) for easier frying and cleaning.
Survival Kit / Emergency Ration
The survival kit should be put into a compact and waterproof container which can be carried by the person during short hikes without a backpack. Survival kits are usually placed in a pack’s top compartment for easy access and portability.The contents include: extra trail food, waterproofed matches, a plastic tarp, a surgical rubber tube and a signal mirror.
First Aid Kit
This kit contains essential supplies such as Personal Medicine, Triangular or Elastic bandages, Forceps, medication for fever, diarhea, Anti -allergies, skin irritation, other illnesses, Puritabs, alcohol or Betadine, insect repellent and disinfectant. This kit should always be checked before every climb and is to be placed in a waterproofed container.Repair Kit
Contains: Tying string, duct tape, tent seam sealer, extra buckle, needle and nylon string, etc.Toiletries
Bring only a suitable amount you need based on the number of days of the trip.- Toilet Paper: Mountaineers should also refarin from using non biodegradable moist towelletes.
- Toothbrush and toothpaste: Lessen the bulk and weight by stuffing the toothpaste in mini ziplocks
- Dental Floss: It can be used also as a thread in your repair kit.
- Sun Block: Waterproof and water-resistant sunscreens are best since effectiveness is not reduced by perspiration.
- Biodegradable Soap: All soaps, unfortunately even biodegradable ones, can contaminate fresh water sources. Using a biodegradable soap doesn't reduce its immediate environmental impact... it just means that the soap will biodegrade in time. If you feel you must use soap: Do all washing, bathing, or cleaning at least 200 feet from any water sources. Dispose of soapy wash and rinse water in a cat hole 6 inches deep to allow bacteria in the soil to completely biodegrade the soap.
- Other personal hygienic needs
Optional Items
Bringing most of the items mentioned below means you have to endure an extra load for the extra convenience in the campsite. It’s up to the climber’s needs if he/she is willing to make sacrifices. Weigh your pack loaded with water before leaving your home so you have an idea how heavy your load will be.- Rubber Bands / Garters
- Camera and tripod
- Umbrella
- Stool
- Face Towel
- Tarp Shelter and Strings
- Hammock with tree hugger
- Safety Pins
- Pack Cover
- Walking Sticks
Part 10: Packing Of Equipment
Maximum Carrying Load
The maximum carrying load should not exceed one-third (1/3 or 33%) of your body weight. Maximum pack weight is 25% All equipment which may be affected or damaged by water should be wrapped and sealed in durable plastic bags. Use a large plastic bag as the inner lining for the backpack to provide additional protection.Accessibility, Balance and Compressibility (ABC)
Light items should be packed at the bottom and away from the frame while heavy items should be placed close to the back. The goal is to have a balanced pack. Things which will be needed often or will require quick access (e.g., rain gear, first-aid, Swiss Knife, trail food, trail water, etc.) should be placed in the top compartment or on the other side pockets for accessibility.
Water Proofing
All equipment which may be affected or damaged by water should be wrapped and sealed in durable plastic bags. Use a large plastic bag as the inner lining for the backpack to provide additional protection. Watch out for those pointed gears while packing! |  | 
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Appendix
Food PreservationEquipment Checklist
Sample Itinerary With Meal Planning
Parts of an Internal Frame Pack
Proper care of sleeping bag
Care of the folding knife
Running tips
U.P. Mountaineers Basic Mountaineering Course 2
To get the greatest benefit from mountaineering, you need to be a
responsible mountaineer. And being one means that you should possess
several basic skills that will make your journey to the boondocks more
enjoyable and fun.
The bulk of these skills are explained in this course Camp Management. This covers the things you do when you stop trekking and establish a campsite, from choosing the site, knowing about tents, knives and ropes, building a fire, cooking meals and maintaining sanitation. These skills will not only enable you to be more at ease outdoors, for you may find out one day that you will have to depend on these skills for your survival under extreme conditions.
Note: when selecting a campsite, the probability of finding all the above is quite remote, but the more of them you can get in one site the better.
Note: Generally, the lower the tent, the more stable it is on high winds
but this makes for less headroom inside. For a team of six persons,
bring along a couple of three person tents. Aside from being much more
stable, it is easier to distribute the tent parts evenly among the
group. It is also easier to find a campsite for two smaller tents than
for a large one.
Free-Standing or Non-free Standing
Free-Standing
Freestanding tents need not to be pegged in order to maintain its structure. They also have the advantage of being moved around after being pitched. Some examples are: A-frames and Domes.
Non-free Standing
Tents that are not free standing need to be pegged to the ground in order to support itself. These are more difficult to pitch and some are less sturdy. Some examples: classic A-type, Sierra Designs Flashlight, North Face West Wind.
Single Wall or Double Wall
Use or Season Rating
Organize the Campsite
Maximize usable space and direct camp traffic more efficiently without the danger of stumbling over guy lines and pegs. Always set up camp before dark. That way you can easily see what you're doing.
Consider relative strengths of other tents
Weaker tents, such as huge domes and A-frames, should be given priority in sheltered areas. Stronger tents, such as tunnels could be pitched in more exposed areas so they can act as windbreakers for the other tents.
Determine Wind Direction
Always set up camp in relation to wind direction. Wind direction changes during the course of the day, but vegetation will grow and bend over to the Lee side, showing the direction of the prevailing winds. Generally, the smallest profile should point towards the wind. For A-Frame and Domes, point a door or a window towards the wind because this will inflate the tent and ease a little pressure off the poles.
Lay the Groundsheet
This step gives you the idea how steep or flat your spot will be so make the neccessary adjustments.
Thread the Poles
Either lay and extend the poles first to the ground or insert it one by one inside pole sleeves.
Stake Down the Corners
Pocket all the pegs while you are pitching so you don’t to go around the tent just to pick up the remaining pegs on the spot where you left it. Pegs should be driven into the ground in a 45-degree angle from the surface. In case of hard soil, screw the peg instead of hammering it. On loose soil, place a heavy rock on top of each peg. On sand, dig off top layer- it's more compact a few inch deeper.
Attach the Flysheet
Maximize other suroundings for attaching guylines. ie: bind guyline to branch, roots or to a second tent. Be sure that these can be seen especially at night so people won’t trip over them.
Secure water runoff parts
Tuck excess groundsheet by rolling it downwards so flood and rain will not seep under the tent floor.
Pitching it Down
Shake off dirt and excess moisture before packing. Then reverse the procedure mentioned for pitching. Wipe off dirt from pegs. Clean the campsite; replace rocks and fluff up the grass cogon and make the spot as if no one has been there.
The Cartridge Stove
Cartridge stoves use pressurized butane, propane or isobutane blends as fuel. They are easy to light because it does not require priming. Flame control is very good and as simple as turning a knob. Mechanical functions are almost non-existent but cartridges are bulky.
The principal disadvantages of butane stoves are their poor performance in cold weather and the decreased heat output occurs as the amount of fuel in the cartridge decreases. The butane inside the cartridge is in liquid form, burning into a gas when released. As the fuel is consumed, the pressure decreases and the gas expel at a slower rate. Do not SHAKE the cartridge before using as this may cause flare-ups.
Butane cartridges - or any fuel for that matter should not subjected to heat above 120 degrees Fahrenheit.
The Liquid Fuel Stove [further expansion needed. Liquid fuel stoves can be further classified to white gas only stoves and dual/multi-fuel stoves.]
[citation on the need for priming is needed] VOLUNTEER ANYONE? - KERWIN
White gas is a highly volatile fuel, an attribute both good and bad. Spilled white gas evaporates readily with little odor, but is dangerously flammable.
White gas or naphtha is a very pure petroleum product containing no additives and no tetra-ethyl lead. Lead is not highly poisonous, but it will clog stoves beyond repair. Unleaded automotive fuels are not recommended for use in white gas stoves as they contain many other additives that will clog burners and may cause safety releases and possible explosions.
White gas stoves are generally termed “high output” as they tend to produce flame hotter than butane. This is excellent for cooking quickly. The potential hazard is that they consume oxygen at an extremely rapid rate and the user must ensure there is adequate ventilation for both the stove and himself. The danger of suffocation is more real than many would expect.
Multi-fuel Stoves
Multi-fuel stoves are similar in construction and appearance to white gas stoves. They have special gaskets that can be manipulated to make the stove adaptable to burn different kinds of fuel, from white gas to kerosene.
Note: all stoves produce carbon monoxide - a deadly gas. Carbon monoxide is the result of incomplete combustion. Lack of oxygen in an enclosed shelter or poor airflow to the burner could cause serious health problems.
Fuel
Make sure it is tightly sealed after filling it with fuel. Do not change the fuel near open flames; replace your fuel at least two (2) meters away from any source of flame.
Pump
Liquid-fuel stoves require pumping, like the Coleman Peak 1, in order to build pressure in the fuel tank. The number of times you need to pump the stove depends on which stove you are using and the amount of fuel it contains; follow what is indicated on the instructions. Usually, stoves need to be pumped around 30 times. Stove tanks should not be filled more than two-thirds full to allow proper pressure to build up. Bluette stoves do not require pumping since the cartridge is already pressurized.
Priming
Almost all liquid-fuel stoves require priming of the fuel in order to achieve the correct burning temperature. Once pressurized, the stove pushes the fuel through the generator, which is heated by a priming paste or a small controlled flame from the stove itself. The liquid fuel is then vaporized, which burns more efficiently and hotter. Depending on the ambient temperature, priming may take as short as 30 seconds to 2 minutes.
Lighting the Stove
Light the stove with a match or a lighter. REMEMBER: ALWAYS MAKE SURE THAT YOU HAVE YOUR FIRE READY BEFORE TURNING THE STOVE ON. The reason for this is to prevent burns or possible explosions. Remember that gas diffuses easily and is highly flammable.
Control
As you cook, you can manipulate the flame by turning the right knobs.
Turn Off
After using the stove, immediately turn it off to save on gas. Just switch it off and wait for the fire to die by itself. NEVER BLOW THE FIRE TO EXTINGUISH IT because unburned fuel will clog the burner. Remove the remaining pressure by loosening the fuel valve (not for bluettes).
The vast majority of stove problems are caused by using improper fuel or by leaving fuel in the tank over a long period of time. Fuel left in the tank will form gums that impairs the stove’s performance. This does not apply to butane cartridges.
Source: Troubleshooting: Coleman stoves
This reduces the chances of “stove flare” wherein unvaporized fuel reaches the height of a few centimeters to two feet. Have a frying pan ready to cover the stove in case of stove flares.
Use an earthpad to protect your floor from heat and spills from the stove. Ventilate the tent properly and keep movement to a minimum. It is easy to knock over a stove in a cramped tent.
Steps
Still, every mountaineer should know how to build and use a fire. There will come a time when you would have to use this skill, say your stoves breaks down or if you have to make a signal fire for rescue purposes. The process of building a fire is as follows:
Fuel Tips
To light the fire
Crouch in front of the fire lay with your back to the wind. Strike a match cupping your hands around the flame and light the tinder. Give it a few minutes and the kindling will catch fire too. After this, feed the fire from the downwind side. Use the thin pieces of fuel first, then follow on with the thicker pieces. Continue feeding it until the fire is the size you want.
Too much wind can snuff out a fire. Make sure of windbreakers such as rocks or even earthpads to shield the fire. These will also reflect the heat. Remember what they say, “Flames for boiling, coals for broiling”
You probably use a couple of knots for everyday needs. In mountaineering, you need to know several more. The trick is to know which knot to use and how to tie it right. Remember that every knot should pass the knot test; it is easy to tie, it holds when tied correctly, and it s easy to untie.
Care for the Rope
Use: Be careful not to step on the rope when using it. Always carry the rope coiled, slung around the shoulders or inside the pack. Never leave the rope lying on the ground in the campsite.
Storage: Dirt or grit should be wiped or washed off with a mild soap, not with a detergent. When wet, let it dry in a shaded area, hung in a loose coil. Direct exposure to the heat of the sun will hasten its deterioration. When dry, coil and then store in a cool, dry place.
Laid Rope: Natural or synthetic fibers are twisted into yarns, the yarns are twisted into strands, and the strands are twisted into rope. Laid or Hawser rope with a diameter of around 11 millimeters and made of strong nylon make an excellent general mountaineering rope. If is ideal for river crossing as a safety line because of its low stretchability.
Kernmantle Rope: A Large number of filaments running the whole length of the rope are contained in a braided sheath. This construction gives the rope a high tensile strength, superior protection from abrasion, and comparative freedom from twisting. The kernmantle rope is available in a number of diameters ranging from 5 mm to 11 mm. Due to its ability to stretch, it is best for rock craft.
Coiling and Uncoiling: After coiling the rope neatly in a clockwise direction (with a diameter of about 2.5 ft to 3 ft), tie a simple whipping of three to six turns to secure the ends. If the rope is longer than 150 ft, double the rope before coiling. When uncoiling a rope, untie it in the exact reverse method as it was coiled. Starting at the rope end will result in a helpless tangle.
Butterfly or Alpine Coil
Bird's Nest Coil
Used mostly by rescue teams because it unravels easily. The coil can even be thrown from a rescue helicopter without the risk of entanglements.
2. The throwing of the rope must always point to the desired direction. This is to ensure proper uncoiling as the rope is thrown. Make sure that the free end of the rope does not snag on any object.
3. Throwing Upward: Stand with your feet apart, with your back to the target point. Swing the rope from between the legs and release directly above the length. This will help the rope reach its full length vertically.
4. Throwing Forward: Stand with feet apart, facing the target with your left foot forward. Throw the rope by swinging the arm from the back and releasing the rope directly in front of you. Use the force to propel the rope as you twist your body to the waist. When throwing to a person on a river, consider the current. Throw the rope a upstream such that it drifts to the person upon landing.
Four things make belaying works.
The essentials of a belay are two climbers, each tied to a rope. As one climbs, the other belays. The belay is connected to an anchor, a point of secure attachment to the rock. The belayer “pays out” or takes in rope as the climber ascends, ready to use one of the methods of applying friction in case the climber fall.
1. Belay Anchor: As the ultimate security for any belay, the anchor should be able to hold the fall and the full weight of both climbers. A large natural feature, such as rock or a tree is an ideal anchor.
2.Belay Stance: If you belay from the body rather than directly from the anchor, you should brace against the forward pull of a fall with a solid stance.
a) Located behind a stable object
b) Sitting stance
c) Standing stance
3. Applying Friction: In any belay method, the rope from the climber goes to a belay device or around the belayer`s hips and then to the belayer’s braking hand. This braking hand produces the belay. The controllable friction by the belay method stops a falling climber. The hip wrap amplifies friction by passing the rope around your back and around your sides.
4. Paying Attention: Presence of mind is the essence. This system will fail without proper attention by the belayer of the climber’s progress. Remember, you are responsible for the other person’s safety so concentrate on what you’re doing.
Storms wreck houses, and rope and tarp fabric aren't as strong and durable as wood and brick. Riding out a storm in a Tarp-shelter is NOT recommended! While they can serve as emergency shelters, they're NOT ‘Impregnable Fortresses'. The only thing you can depend on a Tarp-shelter for is shade – any added ability to deflect wind, or shed a downpour of rain.
Any way or means of providing a fixed point above the ground, from which something can be hung from, or hung on. VSS include tent poles, internal or external frames (tripod, shears, etc), a rope slung between two supports (trees, etc), an overhead suspension point (tree branch, etc), or a mixture of these.
Tarp
Made of nylon tent fabric, poly-tarps, or heavy-duty plastic sheeting like painter’s drop sheets. Ideally, the material should be either a Square, or a Rectangle with the long side twice the length of the short side.
Guy Line
A guy line is a single line or rope which comes from a part of the tent which, when the tent is pegged into the ground and when the guy line pulled tight, it creates the familiar tent shape. Badly tensioned lines cause a tent to sag and when raining, pockets of water form which may then drip into the tent. These lines also help to keep the tent down in high winds. 6-millimetre poly or nylon rope is a good size, with 10-millimetre better in many situations.
Tarp Clips
You can create a DIY tarp clip with rope and a smooth rounded object of at least one inch (2.5 cm) in diameter (SMOOTH pebbles, etc). This DIY tarp clip is very basic, and it may not take too much force to pull it off, or worse, tear a hole in the tarp!
Windward
Direction wind blows FROM, side facing INTO wind, side wind hits.
Lee
Direction wind blows TO, side facing AWAY from wind, sheltered side.
Ridgeline
Top of a roof, usually at the junction of two sloping sides.
Ridgepole
Pole used to reinforce the ridgeline of a tent or fly.
The bulk of these skills are explained in this course Camp Management. This covers the things you do when you stop trekking and establish a campsite, from choosing the site, knowing about tents, knives and ropes, building a fire, cooking meals and maintaining sanitation. These skills will not only enable you to be more at ease outdoors, for you may find out one day that you will have to depend on these skills for your survival under extreme conditions.
Part 1: Campsite Selection
When you end a long day’s trek, you need to scout for a place to spend your night as safe as comfortable as possible. When establishing your campsite, you need to follow certain criteria. Try to look for the following:
| Natural Windbreakers The site should have protection from strong winds. Take advantage of natural windbreakers such as bushes, stable boulders, trees or even tall cogon grass. Be careful though not to pitch your tent directly beneath trees since there is the danger of falling branches, which could damage your tent or worse, injure you. Tree branches overhead will also drip water on you long after a downpour - which can be very annoying. |
| Natural Cushioning The ground should be covered with grass or dead leaves to provide a cushioning effect for a more comfortable night’s rest. This will also help prevent water seepage into the tent and lessen the impact on the ground’s compactability. |
| Accessible to a Water Source A water source would be located nearby, but within a reasonable distance to avoid getting it contaminated. You should camp several meters from the highest possible water line because a flash flood may occur. |
| Panoramic View To further appreciate the wilderness, a panoramic view of the area could be taken into consideration when selecting your campsite. |
| Use already Impacted Campsites Mountains that are climbed regularly have traditional or impacted campsites. Set up your tents here, instead of hacking a new area. This way, we keep damage to the site to a minimum. |
| Avoid Hazardous Elements Avoid overhangs and other areas that are prone to landslides. Don't set up camp beneath a dead tree, or within ‘falling over distance' of a dead tree. The site should also be free from poisonous or thorny plants. |
Note: when selecting a campsite, the probability of finding all the above is quite remote, but the more of them you can get in one site the better.
Part 2: Campsite Shelter
One of the basic necessities you should look for or have when you’re exposed in the outdoors is the shelter. It is a common practice that mountaineers bring their own portable shelter - a tent. Try to use tents with “earth colors” unnatural colors disrupt some important natural processes.Features of a Good Tent
| It should be sturdy in construction, double stitched, and supported by patches at stress points. |
| It should be able to stand exposure to strong winds and rain. Tents achieve this by having an aerodynamic shape or by adding an extra pole within the framework. It is also ideal that tents are covered by a full flysheet. |
| It should be composed of a breathable inner body and a water repellant fly. This allows your body heat to drive away the interior moisture formed by wet clothing and dew. This also allows better ventilation inside the tent while also allowing for air movement within the airspace between the body and the fly, thus preventing condensation. The fly remains impenetrable to the rain since it is water repellant. |
| It should have a bathtub floor construction made of coated nylon or any other water repellant material. This is to help prevent water seepage from the ground and wind driven precipitation from getting into the tent. |
| It should be lightweight and compact. Nylon is not bulky and is the lightest material available. A weight of two to three pounds per person is reasonable. |
| It should have at least two (2) doors or a door and a window for proper ventilation. It should have zippered and meshed doors and window to keep insects out. |
| It should be simple in construction and easy to pitch. |
| It should have sturdy poles. Aircraft aluminum, being strong and lightweight, is the best material. A good alternative, though heavier and prone to splintering, is fiberglass. Poles are preferably shock corded, that is, pole sections are joined by an elastic cord for easier set up. |
| An optional but useful feature is the tent vestibule, an extension of the flysheet that can be used as a covered cooking area and storage area for your equipment. |
Types of Tent
There are several ways of categorizing tents:Free-Standing or Non-free Standing
Free-Standing
Freestanding tents need not to be pegged in order to maintain its structure. They also have the advantage of being moved around after being pitched. Some examples are: A-frames and Domes.
| A - Frame - An innovation of the A-Type
The body is supported by intersecting poles on each end with a
central horizontal pole to keep the whole tent taut. Modified A-Frames
an added central hoop to keep the sidewalls near vertical, thereby
adding more space.
Examples: Eureka Timberline and Eureka Alpine Meadows. |
| Domes: The tent Body is supported by arching poles forming a Dome frame. The usual number of poles forming a Dome tent is three, forming a hexagonal floor. The number of poles for dome tents may vary. Generally, the more poles a Dome has, the more it can withstand high winds. A Dome with four or more poles is called a modified Dome or a Geodesic dome. The steep vertical walls maximize internal space. Examples: Half Dome (2poles) - REI Half Dome and Geodesic Dome (4poles) - North Face VE-25 |
Tents that are not free standing need to be pegged to the ground in order to support itself. These are more difficult to pitch and some are less sturdy. Some examples: classic A-type, Sierra Designs Flashlight, North Face West Wind.
| A –Type The classic triangular design. The body is stretched and staked to the ground tautly with guy lines and is supported by vertical poles at each end. Though much cheaper, it is more cumbersome to pitch and requires a larger space due to its guy lines. |
| Hoop or Tunnel Tunnel shaped, supported by looped frames usually tapering on one end. This has an edge since it is aerodynamic, but it is more cramped than other tents. Examples: Sierra Designs Flashlight and North Face Lunar Light. |
Single Wall or Double Wall
| A double wall tent repels outside moisture with a waterproof rainfly, and it eliminates inside moisture with breathable tent walls. A single wall tent performs both of these tasks with just the tent wall, which is usually a laminate of waterproof and breathable materials. |
Use or Season Rating
| 3-Season Tent models designed to straddle summer and is capable of handling moderate winds and heavy rain, but not snow loads. |
| 4-Season It can be used during summer and winter camping because of its controlled ventillation features on windows and fly sheets. |
| Convertible The tent can be adjusted for warm, cool, cold, and precipitation conditions from inside by using just the net panel in the inner canopy, just the solid panel of the inner canopy, or the solid panel or the inner canopy and the solid panel of the flysheet. |
| Bivy Sacks and other Ultra light Shelters Very popular among climbers and minimalist campers, a bivy sack at its barest is a thin waterproof fabric shell designed to slip over a sleeping bag, providing an additional 5 to 10 °F of insulation and forming an effective barrier against wind and rain. A drawback of a simple bivy sack is the humidity that condenses at the inner side leaving the occupant or the sleeping bag clammy. Better bivy sacks consist of Gore-Tex (or a similar breathable fabric) to allow the humidity to pass. |
Tent Pitching
In large groups, the team leader decides where the tents should be pitched, especially in areas with limited campsites. Each type of tent has a different way of being pitched. This would be discussed in detail during your practical exercises, but below are some rules to follow:Organize the Campsite
Maximize usable space and direct camp traffic more efficiently without the danger of stumbling over guy lines and pegs. Always set up camp before dark. That way you can easily see what you're doing.
Consider relative strengths of other tents
Weaker tents, such as huge domes and A-frames, should be given priority in sheltered areas. Stronger tents, such as tunnels could be pitched in more exposed areas so they can act as windbreakers for the other tents.
Determine Wind Direction
Always set up camp in relation to wind direction. Wind direction changes during the course of the day, but vegetation will grow and bend over to the Lee side, showing the direction of the prevailing winds. Generally, the smallest profile should point towards the wind. For A-Frame and Domes, point a door or a window towards the wind because this will inflate the tent and ease a little pressure off the poles.
Lay the Groundsheet
This step gives you the idea how steep or flat your spot will be so make the neccessary adjustments.
Thread the Poles
Either lay and extend the poles first to the ground or insert it one by one inside pole sleeves.
Stake Down the Corners
Pocket all the pegs while you are pitching so you don’t to go around the tent just to pick up the remaining pegs on the spot where you left it. Pegs should be driven into the ground in a 45-degree angle from the surface. In case of hard soil, screw the peg instead of hammering it. On loose soil, place a heavy rock on top of each peg. On sand, dig off top layer- it's more compact a few inch deeper.
Attach the Flysheet
Maximize other suroundings for attaching guylines. ie: bind guyline to branch, roots or to a second tent. Be sure that these can be seen especially at night so people won’t trip over them.
Secure water runoff parts
Tuck excess groundsheet by rolling it downwards so flood and rain will not seep under the tent floor.
Pitching it Down
Shake off dirt and excess moisture before packing. Then reverse the procedure mentioned for pitching. Wipe off dirt from pegs. Clean the campsite; replace rocks and fluff up the grass cogon and make the spot as if no one has been there.
Proper Care of Tents
By the nature of their use, tents are subjected to a lot of abuse such as sun degradation, stress of pitching and packing, and abrasion. However, through proper care and use, a tent could last for many years. Here are some ways to prolong the life of the tent:- Seal seams - All exposed seams should be sealed for complete tent waterproofing or else water may seep in through needle holes. Seams will need to be resealed when the sealer starts to wear off.
- Set up your tent in a protected area, and put the fly on inside out. Run seam sealer along every seam on the fly and floor. It's better to apply two thin coats than one thick coat. Allow to dry for several hours before putting the tent away.
- Sun - Never leave your tent set up under the sun longer than necessary. Use the flysheet even on clearer even on clear days. It acts as sunscreen and is less susceptible to ultra violet damage than the tent body because of its urethane coating. It is also easier to replace when damaged.
- Fire - Most tent fabrics are fire retardant. Use common sense when using a stove inside or near a tent. If possible, avoid cooking inside the tent unless there is a really bad weather. Prime your stove outside or use the vestibule (if there’s enough headroom for flame upsurge) before bringing it in. Make sure there’s adequate ventilation and open the windows to allow hazardous gases to escape. Tip: have a frying pan ready for covering the stove if there’s sudden flame upsurge.
- Packing a tent - Folding and rolling your tent neatly every time you pack it away tends to stress the same areas over and over, eventually causing waterproofing to break down along the creases. Instead, stuff your tent and fly into the sack like you do a sleeping bag.
- Sometimes you have no choice that you must pack a wet tent, shake the tent out as best you can to remove excess water. As soon as you arrive at the next campsite, set up the tent so it can start to dry out. Storing wet tents for a period of time causes discoloration on it's fabric.
- Cleaning - Clean a tent by setting it up and wiping it with a damp sponge or cloth. For stubborn dirt, use mild soap. Apply a light coat of silicone lubricant or candle wax to the zippers to keep them sliding freely. Grease can be removed with a small drop of kerosene. Never machine wash a tent nor subject it to high temperature.
- Poles and Pegs - Wipe off soil and dirt after use. Apply car wax on aluminum poles to keep smooth. Keep the poles dry, clean, and scratch-free.
- Storage - Be sure that the tent is dry before storing to avoid mold and mildew. Avoid storing the tent body and flysheet compressed inside its sack. Hang it in a breezy, shaded area. Never expose it directly to sunlight. Store it in a cool, dry place. Keep all parts in a single stuff sack.
- Check - Regularly check the tent for damage, especially before a climb. It is better to fix it as early as possible to avoid discomfort. Rips could be patched up with sail tape, torn seams can be sewn.
Part 3: Stoves
Stoves are now considered a necessity for mountaineers. Many of the mountains we climb no longer have adequate supplies of firewood; besides, building a fire is not environmentally sound. Stoves have a minimal impact on the wilderness. “Fires last a night, fire rings last a decade”.Types of Stoves
Stoves may be categorized on the kind of fuel used:The Cartridge Stove
Cartridge stoves use pressurized butane, propane or isobutane blends as fuel. They are easy to light because it does not require priming. Flame control is very good and as simple as turning a knob. Mechanical functions are almost non-existent but cartridges are bulky.
The principal disadvantages of butane stoves are their poor performance in cold weather and the decreased heat output occurs as the amount of fuel in the cartridge decreases. The butane inside the cartridge is in liquid form, burning into a gas when released. As the fuel is consumed, the pressure decreases and the gas expel at a slower rate. Do not SHAKE the cartridge before using as this may cause flare-ups.
Butane cartridges - or any fuel for that matter should not subjected to heat above 120 degrees Fahrenheit.
The Liquid Fuel Stove [further expansion needed. Liquid fuel stoves can be further classified to white gas only stoves and dual/multi-fuel stoves.]
[citation on the need for priming is needed] VOLUNTEER ANYONE? - KERWIN
White gas is a highly volatile fuel, an attribute both good and bad. Spilled white gas evaporates readily with little odor, but is dangerously flammable.
White gas or naphtha is a very pure petroleum product containing no additives and no tetra-ethyl lead. Lead is not highly poisonous, but it will clog stoves beyond repair. Unleaded automotive fuels are not recommended for use in white gas stoves as they contain many other additives that will clog burners and may cause safety releases and possible explosions.
White gas stoves are generally termed “high output” as they tend to produce flame hotter than butane. This is excellent for cooking quickly. The potential hazard is that they consume oxygen at an extremely rapid rate and the user must ensure there is adequate ventilation for both the stove and himself. The danger of suffocation is more real than many would expect.
Multi-fuel Stoves
Multi-fuel stoves are similar in construction and appearance to white gas stoves. They have special gaskets that can be manipulated to make the stove adaptable to burn different kinds of fuel, from white gas to kerosene.
Note: all stoves produce carbon monoxide - a deadly gas. Carbon monoxide is the result of incomplete combustion. Lack of oxygen in an enclosed shelter or poor airflow to the burner could cause serious health problems.
Parts of a White Gas Stove
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How to Operate Stoves
Operating a stove depends on the brand and type of stove one is going to use. The first step is to read and follow the operating instructions printed on the stove or accompanying manual. Generally, the steps in operating a stove are as follows:Fuel
Make sure it is tightly sealed after filling it with fuel. Do not change the fuel near open flames; replace your fuel at least two (2) meters away from any source of flame.
Pump
Liquid-fuel stoves require pumping, like the Coleman Peak 1, in order to build pressure in the fuel tank. The number of times you need to pump the stove depends on which stove you are using and the amount of fuel it contains; follow what is indicated on the instructions. Usually, stoves need to be pumped around 30 times. Stove tanks should not be filled more than two-thirds full to allow proper pressure to build up. Bluette stoves do not require pumping since the cartridge is already pressurized.
Priming
Almost all liquid-fuel stoves require priming of the fuel in order to achieve the correct burning temperature. Once pressurized, the stove pushes the fuel through the generator, which is heated by a priming paste or a small controlled flame from the stove itself. The liquid fuel is then vaporized, which burns more efficiently and hotter. Depending on the ambient temperature, priming may take as short as 30 seconds to 2 minutes.
Lighting the Stove
Light the stove with a match or a lighter. REMEMBER: ALWAYS MAKE SURE THAT YOU HAVE YOUR FIRE READY BEFORE TURNING THE STOVE ON. The reason for this is to prevent burns or possible explosions. Remember that gas diffuses easily and is highly flammable.
Control
As you cook, you can manipulate the flame by turning the right knobs.
Turn Off
After using the stove, immediately turn it off to save on gas. Just switch it off and wait for the fire to die by itself. NEVER BLOW THE FIRE TO EXTINGUISH IT because unburned fuel will clog the burner. Remove the remaining pressure by loosening the fuel valve (not for bluettes).
Care for the Stove
Stoves go through a lot of conditions such as being exposed to dirt, stress in packing and deformities. However, through the proper care and use, a stove could last for many years.- Make sure that the fuel is compatible with the stove type.
- The vast majority of stove problems are caused by using improper fuel or by leaving fuel in the tank over a long period of time. Fuel left in the tank will form gums that impairs the stove’s performance. This does not apply to butane cartridges.
- Never allow your stove to get wet. Put the stove inside the tent when not in use and before going to sleep so that it will not be exposed to rain and dew.
- Always make sure that the pump is properly lubricated. This is to maintain pumping efficiency.
- As much as possible, stoves must be kept in an upright position. Pack it in such a way that it will not fall on its side. This is to prevent fuel spillage. Make sure that the stove is no longer pressurized before you pack it to prevent clogs.
- Although a stove is made of metal, it may also be deformed if not stored in a proper container. Dents in stoves may damage some of its internal parts leading to malfunctions. There are available stove containers in the market, but you can also put the stove inside a large cookset or caldero.
- Lastly, make sure that the stove is always clean. Just wipe off the dirt or mud found on its surface. This helps prevent the corrosion of the metal parts of the stove.
Troubleshooting
Listed below is a list of common stove problems and their solutions. Some problems can be remedied by the reasonably knowledgeable owner; others may necessitate bringing the stove to a repair shop.The vast majority of stove problems are caused by using improper fuel or by leaving fuel in the tank over a long period of time. Fuel left in the tank will form gums that impairs the stove’s performance. This does not apply to butane cartridges.
| 1. Failure to operate or weak flame
a. Clogged - stoves should be disassembled and cleaned. Some parts may require replacement.
b. Leak in safety valve in tank cap - Replace cap c. Low vapor pressure - Pump up pressure; insulate from cold. d. Improper fuel- Empty stove and fill it up using the correct type. |
| 2. Stove surges and has dirty, yellow flame
a. Clogged - Adjust flame control lever (high to low, then low to
high) repeatedly until the clog is cleared, or until blue flame appears.
Refer to item 1.a.
b. Improper fuel type - Refer to item 1.d. c. Improper priming - Allow stove to cool, then prime again and light. |
| 3. Stove stays lit for a few second, then dies a. Slow pressure leak in tank cap – Replace tank cap gasket. |
| 4. Stove will not build up pressure when primed
a. Blown safety valve - Replace tank cap. Once blown, a safety valve will not hold much pressure. b. Pump up leather has dried out - apply oil to pump leather. c. Deformed tank lid gasket - Replace or reshape gasket. |
Part 4: Outdoor Cooking
Do not cook inside the tent except during bad weather. If your tent has enough headroom in the vestibule, it is advisable that you cook there. Prime your stove properly outside the tent and make sure your stove is hot and going before bringing it in.This reduces the chances of “stove flare” wherein unvaporized fuel reaches the height of a few centimeters to two feet. Have a frying pan ready to cover the stove in case of stove flares.
Use an earthpad to protect your floor from heat and spills from the stove. Ventilate the tent properly and keep movement to a minimum. It is easy to knock over a stove in a cramped tent.
Preparing the Cooking Area
- A suitable cooking area should facilitate convenience and ensure safety. Clear the ground of flammable materials. It is imperative that your stove and pot are stable. Mountaineers abounds with stories of rice and hot soup spilled on the ground or on somebody’s lap due to precarious stove.
- Make sure that the kitchen is protected against strong winds. High winds can snuff out the flame and whisk away the heat. You can shelter on the downwind side of the tent. You can also use your earthpad to block the wind off.
- If a campfire is built, be certain that you can set it up downwind from your tent at least three meters away. No want wants to sleep in a smoked sleeping bag inside a tent full of burnt holes.
- Organize everything and within reach; set apart the supplies and garbage to decongest the cooking area.
- Always use a trash bag. Segregate your garbage. Use separate plastics for biodegradable and non-biodegradable never throw leftover on the ground.
- When using a campfire, smear soap at the botom of the pot. This enables you to take off the soot much easier when cleaning the pot.
Cooking Rice
Cooking a pot of rice is one of those everyday things that everyone has to do, but no-one seems to be able to do well! For most, the biggest problem is rice sticking to the bottom of the pot or burning altogether. With this technique, this is no longer a worry. Since the pot is not over an open flame and the steam will keep the pot moist even after the rice finishes cooking, you can walk away, forget about it, and go take a nap.Steps
- Measure one (1) cup of normal, dry rice grains into a pot.
- Place two (2) cups of cold water into the pot.
- Place a well-sealed lid on the pot.
- Place over a moderate to high heat.
- When the rice comes to a rollling boil, turn down the heat to the minimum possible and continue heating for 5 more minutes. A "rolling boil" is large bubbles that cannot be dissipated by stirring. In other words, if you stir the liquid, large bubbles will keep breaking the surface. In making rice, the rolling boil is important so that enough steam builds up to completely cook the rice without it being over an open flame.
- After 5 minutes, turn off heat. Do not lift the lid, as the steam inside will cook the rice through.
- The pot of rice will be fully cooked, light and ready to eat about 10 minutes after the heat is turned off.
- Take a little taste to be sure it is cooked (this should be no problem if you measured out the water correctly). If still a little crunchy, put the top back on to retain the steam, get a little bit of hot steaming water from the tap (not too much, maybe a ¼ cup) and add to the pot. Put the top back on and wait another few minutes.
- You may wish to tweak the "rice to water ratio" with experience. For example, for larger quantities of rice, you may find a little less than double the amount of water results in better rice.
- One cup of dry rice grains cooked in this way is about sufficient to accompany a meal for 2 adults.
- If the rice is a major component of the dish, you might need up to 1 cup of rice per adult.
- Your base measurement doesn't need to be a cup necessarily - the key is to add twice as much water as rice, whatever the quantity.
- It works best to use the original lid of the pot you use, since it will seal best.
- When the rice first boils, it might weep a bit or even lift the lid. Keep watch and an ear out for the start of the boil.
Cooking Pasta
Steps
- Fill the largest pot you have with water.
- Place it on the cooktop.
- Turn the knob to high.
- When the water starts bubbling up at the surface(the technical term for this is "boiling"), add anywhere up to a handful of salt. Most Americans do not add salt, whereas Italians add about a handful.
- When the water restart to boil, dump the container of pasta into the pot.
- Agitate it slightly with a long serving spoon, preferable one with slots or holes in it.
- Keep your eye on it as it continues to boil and stir it just enough to prevent the pasta from sticking to the bottom every 1-2 minutes.
- When it's been boiling for about 10 minutes (check the package for suggested cooking time), take a piece of the pasta out and taste it.
- If it's too hard to bite or tastes funny when you bite it, it needs to cook a little longer. Another good test to see if your pasta is to bite into it; if you see white in the center, your pasta needs to cook a little longer.
- When it's chewy but firm in the center, it's ready. This is referred to as al dente in Italian.
- Empty the entire pot of pasta into a colander.
- Shake out the excess water and move into the pot.
- Cover with your favorite sauce and shake it (inside the hot pot).
- Italians adopt a "leave it alone" or "don't mess with it" policy when cooking pasta. Don't agitate or stir it too much. This goes for the sauce as well.
- Different pastas cook for varying times. Thin linguine, for example, cooks much faster than rigatoni.
- For a hotter boil, cover your pot. Just be sure to remove it once you put the pasta in.
- When your pasta is ready, the outer edges will begin to lighten in color.
- If you make spaghetti and they are not submerged at beginning, do not break them. Wait 30 seconds and gently use your fork to bend them and submerge them.
Part 5: Bolo / Machete
This is a long knife with a blade length of 12 inches or more. Used for chopping, splitting wood and trailblazing. It should have a sheath to protect both you and the blade and can be worn also on a belt.5 Ways to Use the Bolo
| Chopping Use the contact method for this. Hold the bolo edge against a stick on a slant to the grain, not straight across. Raise the bolo and stick together and bring them down hard on the chopping board. Repeat until cut. If the stick is too thick to cut with the chopping method, use the bucking method. |
| Bucking Place the stick on the chopping block and cut it into two with a V-shaped notch. Make the top of the "V" as wide as the thickness of the stick. It is better if you cut both sides partially with V-cuts, then hurl the stick down onto a rock to snap it. |
| Splitting Use the contact method again. Hold the middle of the stick with one hand and rest one end of it on the chopping block. Place the blade on top of the stick, partially embedding it. Lift both stick and bolo together then bring both down gingerly. As they are brought down, release your grip of the stick, just in case the bolo goes through the wood. Repeat this several times until the bolo is more than halfway down the wood, and then twist it slightly to split the wood. |
| Lopping or Limbing This is the process of removing branches. Always strike upwards to the top of the tree to prevent the bolo from being wedge. Always swing away from the body. |
| Trailblazing or Hacking When cutting branches off a tree, make sure that you have a clear swing since anything on the way may obstruct you and deflect the bolo and injure you. Blunt pointed branches after cutting so it won't become a spiked "booby trap" when it dries up. |
Parts of the Bolo
- Tip
- Spine
- Edge
- Blade
- Finger Guard
- Tang
- Handle
- Butt
Handling the Bolo
- You should hone the bolo regularly with a sharpening stone to keep it sharp and safe. Hold it with the blade pointing up, then rub the stone over the blade, stroking away from you. Remember to keep a 30-degree angle between the stone and the blade. Turn the blade over or shift the stone to your other hand to sharpen to other side. Continue until the blade is sharp. You may also use sandpaper to sharpen the bolo.
- When traveling in public transportation, hide the bolo inside the pack.
- When passing the bolo, offer the handle, not the blade.
- Do not let your bolo strike the ground, so always use a chopping block.
- Remember that the bolo can chop not only wood but people too, so make sure you provide a two-meter distance from others when using it.
- Rest when you are tired hacking because ones concentration is dimmed when tired.
- When not in use, sheath your bolo.
Sharpening the Bolo
- Only use a fine-grained sharpening stone.
- Use oil or water as lubricant.
- Lay the blade edge on a stone.
- Raise the back of the edge slightly (a 30-degree angle between the blade and the stone will suffice).
- Stroke the edge towards you and off the stone with a slicing motion, as if you were slicing into the stone.
- Turn the blade over and stroke it away from you the next time.
- Continue back and forth until the full length of the edge is sharp.
- Wipe the blade. Use oil every now and then to keep the bolo from rusting.
Part 6: Fire Building
You may be surprised that the modern mountaineers rarely builds a fire. Instead of campfires, we use modern, compact camping stoves for several reasons. First it is much more convenient to use a stove than to build a fire, especially during a hard trek or during inclement weather. Gathering firewood takes some effort and time, and in some places there are no good firewood. Second, stoves produce less environmental impact. If all climbers gather and cut wood for their use, most mountains would be denuded and become unsightly.Still, every mountaineer should know how to build and use a fire. There will come a time when you would have to use this skill, say your stoves breaks down or if you have to make a signal fire for rescue purposes. The process of building a fire is as follows:
Prepare a Safe Fire Building Site
- When you build a fire, make sure that is safe. A fire must always be under complete control. It must be built on a spot where it cannot spread. Pick an open space at least two (2) meters away from the nearest tree or bush. Be sure that it is located downwind from your tent.
- Clear a three-meter circle on the ground of flammable materials such as branches or dry grass and leaves. On grassy areas, place a layer of soil on top of the grass. On wet ground, build your fire on a floor of sticks or barks of dead trees.
- If a campsite has an established fire site, use it. There is no sense in making another fire ring. Building fire on a big flat rock is a good idea. Turn it over first and turn it back to its original position when finished. This way you can hide the charred spot where you built the fire.
Prepare Your Material
In dry weather, gather wood that is strewn on the ground. Take wood that snaps easily. Only dead, dry wood should be used. There are three types:
| Tinder Any kind of material which would easily catch fire like dried grass or leaves, tree bark, dead twigs no thicker than a match stick. You can also use Kusot which are tiny shavings from dried bamboo or branches. |
| Kindling Thin branches of split wood about the size of a pencil that will catch flame from the kindling. |
| Fuel These are thumb-sized branches to thick logs that will sustain the fire. During the rainy season, look for dead branches on trees. Split open the pieces of wood, discard the wet outer layer and use the drier, inner portion. Cut or split wood into usable lengths, about a foot or so. Stack them neatly in one place and cover it with a tarp or poncho if you intend to use them later. |
- Only collect wood that snaps and breaks. If it bends, it is too moist to burn.
- Collect at least twice as much as you think you'll need - three times as much is better.
- Collect your fuel BEFORE setting a spark - your fire will go out while you are looking for more fuel.
- Pine needles and Pine cones are good for fire starting.
- Leaves are poor for fire starting. There is little room for air.
Fire Starters
These are lifesavers during rainy days when firewood is exceptionally had to burn.
| Fuzz Stick Use dry sticks, thumb thick, and a hand span long. Hold one end and shave it all around but leave the shavings attached. Make the shavings as thin and long as possible so it can easily catch fire. |
| File:Firebug.jpg | Candle Wax / Fire Bugs Bring candle sticks or better yet, make “fire bugs” by rolling newspaper into a tight wad and tying it with two strings, two inches apart. Cut in between and dip each “bug” in molten candle wax. Cool and store. |
|
| Lighters and Matches Waterproof your matches by storing them in watertight containers such as film canisters or small resealable plastic bags. Be sure not to forget the friction pad. Some even go further by dipping the match heads in molten wax or nail polish. |
Building the Fire
Now you are ready to lay and light your fire. Contrary to what some people might think, you just can’t throw wood into a pile and hope for the best. Always remember that there are three factors that ensure a prolonged combustion - Flame, Oxygen and Fuel. Here are several arrangements of firewood, referred to as “Fire Lays” that are frequently used:
| Teepee Fire Lay Start by placing a large handful of tinder on the ground in the middle of the fire site, and then lean a circle of kindling around the tinder. The tips should come together like poles of an Indian teepee. Do it carefully, or else, the kindling sticks may flop over before the tinder burns out. |
| Lean - To Fire Lay An improved version of the teepee fire lay. You can start by pushing a fresh ‘lean - to” stick into the ground at a slant of about 30 degrees. Point the exposed tip to the wind. This stick will keep the kindling upright when the tinder has burned. Place a handful of tinder under the stick. Lean the kindling against the stick, and then place fuel. Strike a match and light the tinder. |
| Fire Stick Fire Lay Use this fire lay to start a fire in a rock or fireplace. Place two rocks about a foot apart and lay a “fire stick” across them. Place a handful of tinder under the fire stick. Build up the fire lay with a thicker fuel, and then ignite the tinder. |
| Criss-Cross Fire Lay This is what you should make if you need a bed of coal for broiling. Place two logs on the ground parallel to each other. Put tinder between them, then lay thin kindling sticks crosswise over the two logs. Continue with more criss-cross layers. Increase the thickness from layer to layer. |
To light the fire
Crouch in front of the fire lay with your back to the wind. Strike a match cupping your hands around the flame and light the tinder. Give it a few minutes and the kindling will catch fire too. After this, feed the fire from the downwind side. Use the thin pieces of fuel first, then follow on with the thicker pieces. Continue feeding it until the fire is the size you want.
Too much wind can snuff out a fire. Make sure of windbreakers such as rocks or even earthpads to shield the fire. These will also reflect the heat. Remember what they say, “Flames for boiling, coals for broiling”
Type of Fireplaces
| Three-Point Rock Fireplace This is the simplest fireplace for a single pot or pan. Place three rocks of even sizes around the fire lay. Do not use rocks from a riverbed; they contain moisture and explode when heated. In the absence of rocks, you can use three tent pegs pushed to the ground. |
| Rock Fireplace Choose dry, flat rocks. Set them into two rows close enough to support your pots. Again, avoid using rocks from the riverbed. |
| Log Fireplace Place two logs close enough to support your utensils. Since the fire eats up the logs from the inside, you will have to replace them from time to time. |
Part 7: Knot Tying
The Overhand Knot should be introduced before other knots as a basis for other knots as well as an additional safety protocol in locking off the working end of the rope.You probably use a couple of knots for everyday needs. In mountaineering, you need to know several more. The trick is to know which knot to use and how to tie it right. Remember that every knot should pass the knot test; it is easy to tie, it holds when tied correctly, and it s easy to untie.
Knots for Joining
These are basic ways for tying two rope ends.
| Square Knot A binding knot, it is used for tying two ends of the same rope. It is useful in tying bundles and packages and is indispensable in first aid. |
| Fisherman‘s Knot Used for tying ropes of equal size together. This is the best knot for tying fine lines. |
| Double Fisherman ‘s Knot A variation of the fisherman s knot, this is used to join two ropes intended to support a person because it is less likely to unravel. |
| Sheet Bend This is the best knot for tying two ropes of different diameter together, although it can also be used for equal sized ropes. |
Hitches
A knot is called a hitch when it is used to tie a rope to an object, such as a pole, a post or a ring.
| Clove Hitch This knot is important in tent pitching, when a rope is attached to a peg. This also used in bushcraft. |
| Two Half Hitches This knot is used to tie a rope such as a clothesline to a post or a ring. It forms a loop that can be pulled tightly and yet loosened easily. |
| Taut Line Hitch This knot is used for tying a tent guyline. One can tighten or loosen the line by pushing the hitch downward or upward. |
| Timber Hitch This is used for raising logs, dragging them over the ground or pulling them through water. This also used in bushcraft. |
| Constrictor Knot Also known as the "Miller's knot" It's a more secure version of clove hitch. |
Knots for Loops
These knots form permanent loops which have permanent sizes or “running” loops which vary in size.
| Slip Knot This knot is used for tying a string around a package or for bundling up a rolled sleeping bag or tent. The formed loop can be slipped into a larger or smaller size. |
| Bowline This knot will form a loop that will not close. As such, it is an important rescue knot. A bowline tied around ones waist should be tight enough to prevent the rope from slipping. It should be loose enough at the same time for a person to be comfortable. This knot should be one fist away from your body. |
| Bowline, casting method Use the method of tying a bowline illustrated here when you need to fasten a line around an object. When synthetic rope is used to tie this knot, it might be less reliable. It is a good idea to secure the end with extra half hitch, or tuck it and trap it beneath one of the rope's strands. |
| Figure-of-eight loop Also known as Figure-of-eight on the bight. Although this knot is difficult to adjust and cannot easily be untied after loading, its advantages outweigh these drawbacks. In addition, because its appearance is unmistakable, it can be quickly checked, which is important when climbers use it. This general-purpose loop is also often used by climbers to attach a line to a carabiner. |
| Threaded figure-of-eight loop This is a variation of the figure-of-eight loop. The most frequent uses of the threaded figure-of-eight are for tying on to the rope and for anchoring non-climbing members of a team. This is probably the most common way of attaching a rope to the harness. |
Flat Webbing
| Girth Hitch The Girth Hitch, also known as the Lark's Foot, is useful for tying a sling to your harness. It's probably the simplest knot you can form with a sling, and this is perhaps why it is so popular. It has many other potential applications (such as extending a runner, joining two slings together, etc), however, be warned: the knot will reduce the strength of the sling. Source:http://www.chockstone.org/TechTips/GirthHitch.htm |
| Water Knot Also known as the ring bend, is used most often to tie a length of tubular webbing into a runner. This knot can work loose over time, so be sure the knot is cinched very tight and the tails of the knot are at least 2 inches long. Check the knot often in runners and retie any that have short tails. Source:http://syndication.getoutdoors.com/go/golearn/92 |
Part 8: Ropework
Ropes are essential in climbing. Small ones have a variety of uses: from securing a tent to making a clothesline. Larger ones can provide safety to the climbers.Care for the Rope
Use: Be careful not to step on the rope when using it. Always carry the rope coiled, slung around the shoulders or inside the pack. Never leave the rope lying on the ground in the campsite.
Storage: Dirt or grit should be wiped or washed off with a mild soap, not with a detergent. When wet, let it dry in a shaded area, hung in a loose coil. Direct exposure to the heat of the sun will hasten its deterioration. When dry, coil and then store in a cool, dry place.
Types of Rope Construction
Only Kernmantle Ropes can be static or dynamic. A static rope has low stretchability, some don t even stretch at all. A Dynamic rope has the ability to stretch and is more elastic than a static rope; this kind of rope is often used in rock climbing.Laid Rope: Natural or synthetic fibers are twisted into yarns, the yarns are twisted into strands, and the strands are twisted into rope. Laid or Hawser rope with a diameter of around 11 millimeters and made of strong nylon make an excellent general mountaineering rope. If is ideal for river crossing as a safety line because of its low stretchability.
Kernmantle Rope: A Large number of filaments running the whole length of the rope are contained in a braided sheath. This construction gives the rope a high tensile strength, superior protection from abrasion, and comparative freedom from twisting. The kernmantle rope is available in a number of diameters ranging from 5 mm to 11 mm. Due to its ability to stretch, it is best for rock craft.
Parts of Rope
- Running end -- end of the rope that is free and can be used
- Standing end -- end of the rope that is static
- Bight -- refers to the twist of the rope
Coiling and Uncoiling
Mountaineer's CoilCoiling and Uncoiling: After coiling the rope neatly in a clockwise direction (with a diameter of about 2.5 ft to 3 ft), tie a simple whipping of three to six turns to secure the ends. If the rope is longer than 150 ft, double the rope before coiling. When uncoiling a rope, untie it in the exact reverse method as it was coiled. Starting at the rope end will result in a helpless tangle.
Butterfly or Alpine Coil
Bird's Nest Coil
Used mostly by rescue teams because it unravels easily. The coil can even be thrown from a rescue helicopter without the risk of entanglements.
Throwing the Rope
1. Estimate the distance the rope has to reach, adding a few more feet for good measure. Coil this length. Let the rest pile loosely on the ground.2. The throwing of the rope must always point to the desired direction. This is to ensure proper uncoiling as the rope is thrown. Make sure that the free end of the rope does not snag on any object.
3. Throwing Upward: Stand with your feet apart, with your back to the target point. Swing the rope from between the legs and release directly above the length. This will help the rope reach its full length vertically.
4. Throwing Forward: Stand with feet apart, facing the target with your left foot forward. Throw the rope by swinging the arm from the back and releasing the rope directly in front of you. Use the force to propel the rope as you twist your body to the waist. When throwing to a person on a river, consider the current. Throw the rope a upstream such that it drifts to the person upon landing.
Belaying
Belaying is the fundamental technique of climbing safety. It is a system of setting up a rope to hold a climber in the event of a fall. A belay consists of nothing more than a rope from a climber to another person, the belayer, who is ready to put immediate friction on the rope to stop a fall.Four things make belaying works.
- A skilled belayer to apply friction to the rope.
- A proper stance and anchor to take the forward pull of the fall.
- A method of amplifying the friction of the belayer`s hand.
- The belayer`s undivided attention.
The essentials of a belay are two climbers, each tied to a rope. As one climbs, the other belays. The belay is connected to an anchor, a point of secure attachment to the rock. The belayer “pays out” or takes in rope as the climber ascends, ready to use one of the methods of applying friction in case the climber fall.
1. Belay Anchor: As the ultimate security for any belay, the anchor should be able to hold the fall and the full weight of both climbers. A large natural feature, such as rock or a tree is an ideal anchor.
2.Belay Stance: If you belay from the body rather than directly from the anchor, you should brace against the forward pull of a fall with a solid stance.
a) Located behind a stable object
b) Sitting stance
c) Standing stance
3. Applying Friction: In any belay method, the rope from the climber goes to a belay device or around the belayer`s hips and then to the belayer’s braking hand. This braking hand produces the belay. The controllable friction by the belay method stops a falling climber. The hip wrap amplifies friction by passing the rope around your back and around your sides.
4. Paying Attention: Presence of mind is the essence. This system will fail without proper attention by the belayer of the climber’s progress. Remember, you are responsible for the other person’s safety so concentrate on what you’re doing.
Part 8: Tarp Shelters
Though many tents are available, it is necessary that you know how to make an improvised shelter. There might be circumstances when your tent might give way. Tarp-shelters are simple shelters made from a Vertical Support System (VSS), rope, ground stakes, a tarp or plastic sheet, and ingenuity.Storms wreck houses, and rope and tarp fabric aren't as strong and durable as wood and brick. Riding out a storm in a Tarp-shelter is NOT recommended! While they can serve as emergency shelters, they're NOT ‘Impregnable Fortresses'. The only thing you can depend on a Tarp-shelter for is shade – any added ability to deflect wind, or shed a downpour of rain.
Basic parts of a Tarp Shelter
Vertical Support System (VSS)Any way or means of providing a fixed point above the ground, from which something can be hung from, or hung on. VSS include tent poles, internal or external frames (tripod, shears, etc), a rope slung between two supports (trees, etc), an overhead suspension point (tree branch, etc), or a mixture of these.
- Top - basic line strung between two fixed objects. Usually either from ground to a tree, or between two trees.
- Second Top - single overhead hanging support. Usually from an overhanging tree branch, or from a rope line.
- Bottom Left - two poles lashed together to make a ‘Shears’ frame. A rope is slung between the upper angle. Useful for areas without trees.
- Bottom Right - traditional tent pole, guy line and ground stake.
- The 3-poled Tripod and 4-poled Pyramid frames, offer a skeleton you can drape a tarp over, or an external frame to support an overhead style VSS.
Tarp
Made of nylon tent fabric, poly-tarps, or heavy-duty plastic sheeting like painter’s drop sheets. Ideally, the material should be either a Square, or a Rectangle with the long side twice the length of the short side.
Guy Line
A guy line is a single line or rope which comes from a part of the tent which, when the tent is pegged into the ground and when the guy line pulled tight, it creates the familiar tent shape. Badly tensioned lines cause a tent to sag and when raining, pockets of water form which may then drip into the tent. These lines also help to keep the tent down in high winds. 6-millimetre poly or nylon rope is a good size, with 10-millimetre better in many situations.
Tarp Clips
You can create a DIY tarp clip with rope and a smooth rounded object of at least one inch (2.5 cm) in diameter (SMOOTH pebbles, etc). This DIY tarp clip is very basic, and it may not take too much force to pull it off, or worse, tear a hole in the tarp!
Windward
Direction wind blows FROM, side facing INTO wind, side wind hits.
Lee
Direction wind blows TO, side facing AWAY from wind, sheltered side.
Ridgeline
Top of a roof, usually at the junction of two sloping sides.
Ridgepole
Pole used to reinforce the ridgeline of a tent or fly.
Fundamental rules in building tarp shelters
- Fabric – consider how ‘waterproof' is the tarp fabric itself.
- Base Design - some are inherently more weather worthy than others are.
- Head Room – depends on tarp size, the set-up should have enough space to sit inside it.
- Set-up – The set-up of a Tarp-shelter must take account of where the wind is blowing from, in order to stop the Tarp-shelter from ‘catching the wind' and becoming a glorified ‘kite'.
- Ropes – make sure the ropes are taut.
- Knots – recommended knots to be used: overhand, clove hitch for pegs, Sheet bend for tarp clips and two-half hitches for VSS or onto tarp.
- Stakes - extra stakes may be needed for additional support.
- Seepage – consider if rain and moisture will seep down the ropes and seams into the Tarp-shelter.
- Rising Damp - is the ground under the shelter wet or humid and prone to flooding.
- Run-off Water – consider that water pools form around a tarp shelter and sometimes you have to modify the design to lessen the leak.
- Groundsheet – Often check if rain will seep through the design. Turn a basic groundsheet into a Tub Floor by folding the sides into mud walls. Make creases about 6 inches (15 cm) in from all 4 sides of the tarp. Make diagonal folds in the corner squares, with the fold line coming in from the outermost corner. In the 4 corners of the tarp, the crease lines will overlap, making corner squares.
- Weight Load - Storm debris and rain may lie on top of the Tarp-shelter (or be blown against it), and pile up until the accumulated weight overloads the Tarp-shelter's supports. This is generally a ‘gradual' problem, with sagging roofs and bulging walls warning of any impending ‘cave in'. However, a severe storm can dump an overwhelming amount of debris within a few minutes, especially if the debris includes leaves and branches from trees!
Tarp Shelters Ideal for Sheltered Locations
| Lean-To Use two improvised poles or two adjacent trees, attach the two corners of the groundsheet to the poles or trees. Peg the remaining two corners. It is important that you note the wind direction when using the lean-to, the exposed side of the groundsheet should be facing where the wind is coming from. |
| Shade Sail Open and airy, and like the name implies, little more than a Shade Sail. Size of shelter depends on wall angles. |
| Basic Fly Sheet with support on all 4 corners in air |
| Basic Fly Sheet with pole support on all 4 corners |
| Mushroom (Fly Sheet with center pole) Support centre point in air or use a pole with rounded object on tip to avoid damage to tarp. |
Tarp Shelters Ideal in Mid-Weather Conditions
| A-Type Also know as A-Frame or Triangular Arch. If there are two adjacent tree present, link a guy line connecting the trees. Fold the groundsheet into two and hang it on the line. Tie the corners to the ground using strings and pegs. If there are no available trees, you may improvise poles from strong branches or trekking poles. Support poles with guylines and pegs. |
| C-Fly (Over and Under Wind Shed) |
| Bakers (Wind Shed) |
Tarp Shelters Ideal in windy conditions
| Diamond Fly |
| Forrester "Threshold" around entrance helps with weather control. |
| Half Pyramid Wedge Cover This is just the Half Pyramid used as a Semi-Walled Wedge type of wind shed. |
U.P. Mountaineers Basic Mountaineering Course 3
Land Navigation
To be oriented in the wilderness is to be aware at all times of your exact location and altitude. Before leaving for any wilderness trip, you can begin to acquire this orientation by carefully studying good topographic maps, planning your route thoroughly, anticipating possible difficulties, estimating travel time according to the weather and the abilities of the hikers, and talking with people who know the area. Every mountaineer should be interested in the how-to of map and compass reading - you never know when you may suddenly have to rely on your knowledge of them if you become separated from your group or get lost. Also, even if you’ve never hiked on anything but a well-traveled path, you’ll probably find your trip more interesting and rewarding if you can figure out just what it is you’re seeing as you go along. Land Navigation can be lots of fun!
There are different types of maps (road, political, relief, etc.). For the purposes of mountaineering, we will only discuss the Topographic Map. A Topographic Map shows the contour of the surface area, indicates elevation, bodies of water, trails, and roads.
2. Map Scale - found at the upper left-hand portion of the map. It is composed of the name of the island or province where the area is located and the ratio of the map distance to the real distance. If the map scale says for the example; Luzon 1: 50,000 - this means that the area is located in the island of Luzon, and that one unit measured on the map translates to 50,000 units on real ground.
3. Sheet Number - maps are numbered in sequence with adjacent maps. When buying maps, this is the information given to the seller.
4. Legend - a glossary of symbols found on the map.
5. Distance Scale - a linear measurement of distances on the map. This represents aerial distance, which means, the distance if the whole place were flat. If it is in the mountainous or sloping area, you have to give leeway to get the exact distance, depending on the steepness of the slope; but the difference is usually minimal.
6. Magnetic Declination - shows the difference in degrees between the direction of the true north (geographical north) and magnetic north.
7. Contour Interval Note - indicates the difference in elevation between two adjacent contour lines.
8. Index to Boundaries - this indicates the political boundaries present on the map.
9. Longitude, Latitude Designations - found at the four corners of the map. It indicates the exact angular distance east or west of the earth’s surface (longitude) and a region with reference of its distance north or south of the equator (latitude).
10. Contour Lines - are those brown squiggly lines, which give us an idea of the contour of the land. A single contour line connects to a point of the same elevation. Simply put, contour lines are the intersection between the earth’s surface and an imaginary horizontal plane set at a known elevation.
11. Colors of the Map - The map is very colorful but those colors weren’t place there to please the eyes. Each color means something so that the geographical feature may be easily recognized.
12. Grid Lines - These are the north- south lines and the east- west lines of the map. Each map is divided into squares, the lines running north / south or east / west. Each line is numbered. The squares formed by lines are 1 square km. The term grid north applies to the direction from the bottom of the map to the top, along the north-south line.
13. Date of Map Survey - take note of the date of map survey when looking for existing trails, roads, houses, and other landmarks.
14. Cross Hair Markers
On a 1: 50,000 scale map, remember the following conversions;
20 mm on the map = 1 kilometer in real space
2. Recognizing Landforms - is a feat accomplishment by deciphering the shape that the contour lines make. This requires a good imagination and the ability to translate a two-dimensional image to 3-D and the skill to transform a set of contour lines into profiles.
What is a profile? If a map is what you see from above, then a profile is what you would see from the side. It is a cross section of the earth. When you look at the mountain from afar, you are actually viewing its profile along an imaginary vertical plane cutting across its peak.
How do you go about making a profile? Given the set of contour lines below, select a line AB that you want to profile. Make a set of lines parallel to line AB below; the number of lines is equal to the number of contour lines. The line at the bottom is designated the lowest elevation and the line at the top is the highest elevation. After projecting the intersections of the contour lines and line AB to their respective elevation lines and connecting the projected intersections, you produce the profile of the mountain.
3. Steep or Gentle? – It is an often-asked question. The rule is; if the contour lines are close to each other, it is a steep slope. If the contour lines are far apart from each other, it is a gentle slope.
4. Going Up? - Check the elevation of contour lines. If it increases, you’re obviously going up. Another way is by using a stream (indicated by a blue line). The V-shape formed by the contour lines as they intersect the stream points upstream, hence going up. It is a proven fact that water flows from higher to lower elevations.
5. Peak / Summit - It is the X-spots within a small, elliptical contour line. It usually has the exact elevation indicated beside it.
6. Ridge and Gully - mountaineers should trek on ridges as much as possible (the backbones of the mountain) rather than the gullies. The reason is that gullies are actually waterways, and water always takes the easiest path downwards. Gullies contain sudden drops, waterfalls, and other steep land feature, which is not actually the easiest path to take. Ridges on the other hand offer relatively gentler slopes. A ridge curves outwards, away from the peak. A gully curves inwards, towards the peak.
7. Cliff - It is something avoided by trekkers but loved by rock climbers. This is the rare case in which contour lines meet.
8. Depression - It is indicated by special contour lines called depression. Causes of depression are emptied lakes and volcanic craters.
9. Saddle - is an area between two adjacent peaks.
2. Waterproofing - you can buy a sheet of plastic and cover the map with it. You may also use a rubber compound that waterproofs paper when applied. Another method is folding the map and placing it in a waterproof pouch.
1. Lensatic Compass - used by military and some outdoorsmen. It has a sight that can be used for accurate sighting.
2. Brunton Compass – Used by geologists. It has a level bubble, a clinometer, and a precision needle.
3. Silva-type Compass – Also called a protractor compass. It is simple, easy to use, and generally used by mountaineers.
2.Cord
3.Dial
4.Ruler
5.Orienting Lines
6.Orienting Arrow
7.Directional Arrow
8.Magnetic Needle
9.Index Point
10.Magnifier
11.Scale
12.Luminous points - are located at strategic places, on the north end of the needle, at both sides of the orienting arrow, and at the directional arrow. These are useful in night trekking.
1. Setting a bearing - a bearing (direction on from point A - usually yourself - to another object at point B) is of two kinds; True and Field. True bearings are taken from the map when you have laid out your course (explanation below). While Field bearings are taken through visual inspection of the area.
When using the compass to indicate direction in the field, two basic conditions must be met. These are;
a) First the dial must be set at the desired degree reading. If the degree or the direction is known, set the dial to the index pointer. If the degree is unknown, then this must be obtained from visual inspection or through the use of map.
b)Second, without changing the dial setting, the whole compass must be positioned so that the orienting arrow “boxes in” the north end of the magnetic needle.
With a known bearing and after setting the dial, the second criterion can be accomplished by holding the compass waist high with the base plate being horizontally level. The directional arrow should be pointing away from you and not towards your body. The directional arrow now acts as a pointer to where you ought to go. Turn yourself and the compass around together until the orienting arrow is lined up with the north end of the magnetic needle. The directional arrow is now pointing towards the desired direction.
2. Taking a bearing - To take the bearing of an object in the field, just reverse the procedure. Hold the compass waist high with the directional arrow pointed towards the object. You may have to pivot your whole body to achieve this. Without changing the position of the compass, carefully turn the dial until the orienting arrow boxes in the north end of the magnetic needle. The bearing to the object is now the degree reading indicated towards the desired direction.
3. Back bearing - is used when you wish to return to your original position. Box in the south end of the magnetic needle and proceed in the direction pointed by the directional arrow.
2.Metal Objects – be aware of nearby iron and steel objects. They may deflect the needle if they are too close to the compass. Keep those buckles, bolos, and metal whistles away.
3.Bubbles - a small bubble may sometimes form in the liquid but it has no influence on the accuracy of the instrument. The appearance and the subsequent disappearance of the bubble is due to the changes in temperature and atmospheric pressure. Bubbles larger than 1/4 inch, however, are probably caused by a leaking compass housing and should be viewed with suspicion.
4.Heat - never place the compass in a hot place such as an exposed flat rock or leave it lying under the sun. The expanding liquid may damage the compass housing.
5.Luminous Points - can be made more brilliant with the regular exposure to light.
6.Do not drop it - the compass is made from sturdy plastic but do not test its sturdiness by dropping it at any height.
1. Turn the compass dial units it reads 0-degrees (n) at the index pointer.
2. Align the left edge of the base plate to the leftmost north- south gridline of the map.
3. Without disturbing the relative of the map and compass, rotate the map until the orienting arrow “ boxes in ’’ the north end of the magnetic needle. The map now is properly oriented.
2. Lay the compass on the map so that the long edge of the base plate is exactly on the line on the map that you wish to travel. The directional arrow should point towards the direction of travel.
3. Rotate the dial until you “box in ’’ the needle.
4. The bearing is the number indicated at the index pointer.
peaks are usually used.
1. First, get the field bearing of the peak A and on an orienting map, plot the bearing making sure that the lines goes through peak A. You are somewhere along this line.
2. Next, get the field bearing of peak B and plot it on the map, again making sure that the line goes through peak B.
3. Your exact position on the map is the intersection of these two lines.
As with all other aspects of navigation, you should use your common sense here. For example, you are on a river and you have identified that river on the map. All you need is one field bearing of a prominent feature; you are where that line of bearing and the river intersect. Sometimes, a compass is not even needed if the navigator is good interpreter of contour lines.
The shortest distance between two points is a straight line. In mountaineering, the straight line isn’t necessarily the easiest. There are many qualities to a good route, and the fastest route sometimes misses the whole point and spirit of mountaineering.
Route finding is not necessarily something you do once you get lost. It begins at home or at the pre-climb meeting. This involves getting familiar with the map and creating a picture in your mind of how the mountain will look like once you get there.
Gentler slopes mean easier trekking. Keep river crossings to a minimum. If you are boxed in by steep slopes, try contouring - walking across the slope moving neither upward nor downward - until you reach a gentler slope.
The finished route will look like a broken line weaving its way from the jump - off point to the point of destination, most like a peak. You can now base your itinerary on the selected route. Note down the direction and distances so that you can periodically check if you’re following the correct trail.
Terrain - The mountain environment rarely presents clear vistas where one can have a pick of prominent features to take bearings on. Maximize sighting opportunities and plan the route ahead before you start the next trek. Try to create immediate objectives, break down the whole route, and plan accordingly. Take note of changes in the slope. In heavily forested areas especially at mid-altitude, changes in terrain can be abrupt. Don’t be deceived and stick to your plan. It is important to relate the map to your position so try to get a good view of the surroundings from time to time. This, of course, is not always possible unless you are planning a new route up the grasslands of Maculot.
Tree Climbing - One of the most obvious and practical remedies is to practice your climbing skills on a tree. No need for protection systems and belays here but take extra care in choosing your tree. Its height should be at par with the surrounding vegetation. Most healthy trees at mid-altitude are quite sturdy and can easily support a few members of the party. On sharper slopes check the root system. And check to see if ever an act of god strikes the tree down, the fall you would take would not result in your untimely demise.
Wind, rain, and the works - One thing is sure when climbing tropical forest: you will almost always be wet. Either from the precipitation of your perspiration. There are many types of rain. There is the shower type of rain that persist until if finds hole in the seams of your raingear. Map reading in this type of rain is possible if a provisional shelter for reading the map can be found. Even then it can be tricky. The howling type of rain is the nemesis. In these instances either finding a rock shelter or setting up the tent are probably the most acceptable solutions if the succeeding attempts at route finding seem fiendish and foolhardy.
The key is planning the route way in advance, taking advantage of good breaks in the weather. Plan with the group every evening and set achievable targets and probable scenarios for the following day. Have the wisdom to know when to stop and accept Natures superiority. If howling rain strikes the team on an exploratory climb, assess the best place to stop. Setting up camp amongst the shelter of trees is desirable but check for falling branches. In the evening, check everybody’s asses to see who has the birthmark.
In low visibility situations, be very careful when marching on. If the route plan has been made and the general bearing and features to follow have been determined, create immediate objectives to achieve some distance, if you really must. Sometimes it is best to slightly offset specially if the objective is a very prominent feature, like a ridge for instance.
Assessing the situation - The first thing is to STOP. Are you really lost? Or has the vegetation has changed? When you started the trek you knew exactly where you were, ditto for most of the route until the present predicament. A good navigator never really gets lost. Assess the state of the team. Is anyone injured? Everybody in good spirits? Anybody in danger in missing an important dinner date on Monday? Is everyone together? A group has a very good chance of rectifying the situation. It is the lone mountaineer separated from the group that’s in deep shit, for obvious reasons.
Following the trail - Discuss the last known position and backtrack if time and weather will allow it. Work your way from there, always coming back to the known spot if the going gets rough. If you are alone and not sure where you are, mark your position and keep coming back to it if you can’t seem to find the right trail. It would be easier to find you that way.
Bivouac - A highly taxed and stressed team hours away from a known position would be better off bivouac than trashing about getting more disoriented by the minute. If provisions and shelter are adequate, there is no reason to get distressed.
Most Trodden Trails
What to do if you are really lost for days?
Sometimes, a description of the CP is given with the bearing and direction. CP’s are marked by a red and white orienteering flag.
If an obstacle (gully, thick vegetation, structures, etc…) blocks your path, you can go around it, but remember two things;
(1) First, compensate for your deviation - if you took about 20 strides to the right of your bearing, you must take another 20 spaces to the left once you have cleared the obstacle. An alternative is to (2) Compensate for your circuitous route by subtracting the number of strides you actually took.
The same principle applies to mountaineering. If you follow a trail that goes to the right of your bearing, you must move back towards the left as to compensate for the deviation.
Stand in an open area (a parking lot will do) and place the coin between your feet. Pick an arbitrary bearing, for example - 20- degrees. Walk 15 paces towards that direction, and then stop. Add 120-degrees to your initial bearing; in this case the result is 140-degrees, then walk another 15 paces. At the end of this distance, add-120 degrees again to the previous bearing; resulting to 260-degrees. Walk another 15 paces and at the end of that distance, the coin should be at your feet again.
To avoid this pitfall, don’t open the map right away. Begin by checking your location; are you in a place where you can see your terrain in several directions? Move a little way off your route if necessary; get away from trees and other obstacles that can obstruct your vision. Then look at the mountains, streams, ridges, and other geographical features to get a sense of how their positions relate to one another. Imagine how would they look on a topographic map. Once you have an idea of how the area will appear, you can then fit the map to the terrain, and not the other way around.
This is not a play of words. If you look at the map first, you establish certain features you intend to locate at the terrain, and with that preconceived notion, you’ll probably find things that fit and overlook more important features that don’t.
Landforms commonly used are rivers, ridges, and roads.
First take a bearing to the handrail feature, and then walk to it.
If the handrail does not lead directly to your objective, “jump-off” on a compass bearing for the remaining distance, using the hilltop reference.
Contouring uses the compass as a general reference point for direction, while you follow a contour line on the map, staying at a constant elevation while you negotiate hills and ridges. In this case the hilltop lies exactly in the path, you can walk along the contours of this hill and check the back bearing with the hilltop as your reference point to get back on track.
To be oriented in the wilderness is to be aware at all times of your exact location and altitude. Before leaving for any wilderness trip, you can begin to acquire this orientation by carefully studying good topographic maps, planning your route thoroughly, anticipating possible difficulties, estimating travel time according to the weather and the abilities of the hikers, and talking with people who know the area. Every mountaineer should be interested in the how-to of map and compass reading - you never know when you may suddenly have to rely on your knowledge of them if you become separated from your group or get lost. Also, even if you’ve never hiked on anything but a well-traveled path, you’ll probably find your trip more interesting and rewarding if you can figure out just what it is you’re seeing as you go along. Land Navigation can be lots of fun!
Part 1: The Map
Definition: A planar representation of a land area, taken from an aerial point of view.There are different types of maps (road, political, relief, etc.). For the purposes of mountaineering, we will only discuss the Topographic Map. A Topographic Map shows the contour of the surface area, indicates elevation, bodies of water, trails, and roads.
Parts of the Topographic map
1. Map Name - found at the central upper portion of the map. The map name is designated after the most prominent feature on the map.2. Map Scale - found at the upper left-hand portion of the map. It is composed of the name of the island or province where the area is located and the ratio of the map distance to the real distance. If the map scale says for the example; Luzon 1: 50,000 - this means that the area is located in the island of Luzon, and that one unit measured on the map translates to 50,000 units on real ground.
3. Sheet Number - maps are numbered in sequence with adjacent maps. When buying maps, this is the information given to the seller.
4. Legend - a glossary of symbols found on the map.
5. Distance Scale - a linear measurement of distances on the map. This represents aerial distance, which means, the distance if the whole place were flat. If it is in the mountainous or sloping area, you have to give leeway to get the exact distance, depending on the steepness of the slope; but the difference is usually minimal.
6. Magnetic Declination - shows the difference in degrees between the direction of the true north (geographical north) and magnetic north.
7. Contour Interval Note - indicates the difference in elevation between two adjacent contour lines.
8. Index to Boundaries - this indicates the political boundaries present on the map.
9. Longitude, Latitude Designations - found at the four corners of the map. It indicates the exact angular distance east or west of the earth’s surface (longitude) and a region with reference of its distance north or south of the equator (latitude).
10. Contour Lines - are those brown squiggly lines, which give us an idea of the contour of the land. A single contour line connects to a point of the same elevation. Simply put, contour lines are the intersection between the earth’s surface and an imaginary horizontal plane set at a known elevation.
11. Colors of the Map - The map is very colorful but those colors weren’t place there to please the eyes. Each color means something so that the geographical feature may be easily recognized.
Brown- land feature (contour lines)
Blue- bodies of water (lakes, streams)
Black-man-made structures (buildings)
Green- vegetation
Red- main roads
12. Grid Lines - These are the north- south lines and the east- west lines of the map. Each map is divided into squares, the lines running north / south or east / west. Each line is numbered. The squares formed by lines are 1 square km. The term grid north applies to the direction from the bottom of the map to the top, along the north-south line.
13. Date of Map Survey - take note of the date of map survey when looking for existing trails, roads, houses, and other landmarks.
14. Cross Hair Markers
Using a Topographic Map
1. Determining Distance - is one of the uses of the map. To do this, you must first know the scale of the map. The scale most often use for mountaineering is 1: 50,000 since it covers a lot of ground (26 kilometers across) but still gives detailed information on land features. Measure the distance from point A to point B with the side or the cord (for zigzag routes) of the compass, then gauge it against the distance scale found below the map.On a 1: 50,000 scale map, remember the following conversions;
20 mm on the map = 1 kilometer in real space
1 mm on the map = 50 meters in real spaceMemorize these simple figures so that you can use the millimeter scale on the compass for measurement instead of the distance scale on the map, which is often tucked out of the way when the map is being used on the field.
2. Recognizing Landforms - is a feat accomplishment by deciphering the shape that the contour lines make. This requires a good imagination and the ability to translate a two-dimensional image to 3-D and the skill to transform a set of contour lines into profiles.
What is a profile? If a map is what you see from above, then a profile is what you would see from the side. It is a cross section of the earth. When you look at the mountain from afar, you are actually viewing its profile along an imaginary vertical plane cutting across its peak.
How do you go about making a profile? Given the set of contour lines below, select a line AB that you want to profile. Make a set of lines parallel to line AB below; the number of lines is equal to the number of contour lines. The line at the bottom is designated the lowest elevation and the line at the top is the highest elevation. After projecting the intersections of the contour lines and line AB to their respective elevation lines and connecting the projected intersections, you produce the profile of the mountain.
3. Steep or Gentle? – It is an often-asked question. The rule is; if the contour lines are close to each other, it is a steep slope. If the contour lines are far apart from each other, it is a gentle slope.
4. Going Up? - Check the elevation of contour lines. If it increases, you’re obviously going up. Another way is by using a stream (indicated by a blue line). The V-shape formed by the contour lines as they intersect the stream points upstream, hence going up. It is a proven fact that water flows from higher to lower elevations.
5. Peak / Summit - It is the X-spots within a small, elliptical contour line. It usually has the exact elevation indicated beside it.
6. Ridge and Gully - mountaineers should trek on ridges as much as possible (the backbones of the mountain) rather than the gullies. The reason is that gullies are actually waterways, and water always takes the easiest path downwards. Gullies contain sudden drops, waterfalls, and other steep land feature, which is not actually the easiest path to take. Ridges on the other hand offer relatively gentler slopes. A ridge curves outwards, away from the peak. A gully curves inwards, towards the peak.
7. Cliff - It is something avoided by trekkers but loved by rock climbers. This is the rare case in which contour lines meet.
8. Depression - It is indicated by special contour lines called depression. Causes of depression are emptied lakes and volcanic craters.
9. Saddle - is an area between two adjacent peaks.
Care of the Map
1. Folding - always fold along the north- south and east- west grid lines. Keep folds to a minimum because more folds mean more lines for wear to tear.2. Waterproofing - you can buy a sheet of plastic and cover the map with it. You may also use a rubber compound that waterproofs paper when applied. Another method is folding the map and placing it in a waterproof pouch.
Part 2: The Compass
It is simply a magnetized needle, free to swing in any direction contained in a sturdy housing. The needle settles down to point to the magnetic north.Types of Compasses
- There are three types of compasses classified according to use.1. Lensatic Compass - used by military and some outdoorsmen. It has a sight that can be used for accurate sighting.
2. Brunton Compass – Used by geologists. It has a level bubble, a clinometer, and a precision needle.
3. Silva-type Compass – Also called a protractor compass. It is simple, easy to use, and generally used by mountaineers.
Parts of Compass
1.Base Plate2.Cord
3.Dial
4.Ruler
5.Orienting Lines
6.Orienting Arrow
7.Directional Arrow
8.Magnetic Needle
9.Index Point
10.Magnifier
11.Scale
12.Luminous points - are located at strategic places, on the north end of the needle, at both sides of the orienting arrow, and at the directional arrow. These are useful in night trekking.
Using a Compass
There are several different system in using a compass. Most of them are too complex to be of practical value to the mountaineer. The system described here however, is the simplest available and has been successfully used in the field for many years. With it, everyone can learn to navigate in any terrain - dessert, mountain, forest - proficiently and confidently.1. Setting a bearing - a bearing (direction on from point A - usually yourself - to another object at point B) is of two kinds; True and Field. True bearings are taken from the map when you have laid out your course (explanation below). While Field bearings are taken through visual inspection of the area.
When using the compass to indicate direction in the field, two basic conditions must be met. These are;
a) First the dial must be set at the desired degree reading. If the degree or the direction is known, set the dial to the index pointer. If the degree is unknown, then this must be obtained from visual inspection or through the use of map.
b)Second, without changing the dial setting, the whole compass must be positioned so that the orienting arrow “boxes in” the north end of the magnetic needle.
With a known bearing and after setting the dial, the second criterion can be accomplished by holding the compass waist high with the base plate being horizontally level. The directional arrow should be pointing away from you and not towards your body. The directional arrow now acts as a pointer to where you ought to go. Turn yourself and the compass around together until the orienting arrow is lined up with the north end of the magnetic needle. The directional arrow is now pointing towards the desired direction.
2. Taking a bearing - To take the bearing of an object in the field, just reverse the procedure. Hold the compass waist high with the directional arrow pointed towards the object. You may have to pivot your whole body to achieve this. Without changing the position of the compass, carefully turn the dial until the orienting arrow boxes in the north end of the magnetic needle. The bearing to the object is now the degree reading indicated towards the desired direction.
3. Back bearing - is used when you wish to return to your original position. Box in the south end of the magnetic needle and proceed in the direction pointed by the directional arrow.
Care of the Compass
1. Waterproofing - the compass is basically waterproof but do not leave it soaking in the water too long. This erases the paint marks found at the scale and dial.2.Metal Objects – be aware of nearby iron and steel objects. They may deflect the needle if they are too close to the compass. Keep those buckles, bolos, and metal whistles away.
3.Bubbles - a small bubble may sometimes form in the liquid but it has no influence on the accuracy of the instrument. The appearance and the subsequent disappearance of the bubble is due to the changes in temperature and atmospheric pressure. Bubbles larger than 1/4 inch, however, are probably caused by a leaking compass housing and should be viewed with suspicion.
4.Heat - never place the compass in a hot place such as an exposed flat rock or leave it lying under the sun. The expanding liquid may damage the compass housing.
5.Luminous Points - can be made more brilliant with the regular exposure to light.
6.Do not drop it - the compass is made from sturdy plastic but do not test its sturdiness by dropping it at any height.
Part 3: Using the Map and Compass
Orienting the Map
The first step the land navigator must always perform. Orienting the map simply mean aligning the grid north and geographical north. For our purposes, geographical north is the same as magnetic north. To do this:1. Turn the compass dial units it reads 0-degrees (n) at the index pointer.
2. Align the left edge of the base plate to the leftmost north- south gridline of the map.
3. Without disturbing the relative of the map and compass, rotate the map until the orienting arrow “ boxes in ’’ the north end of the magnetic needle. The map now is properly oriented.
How to get a bearing from the map
1. Orient the map.2. Lay the compass on the map so that the long edge of the base plate is exactly on the line on the map that you wish to travel. The directional arrow should point towards the direction of travel.
3. Rotate the dial until you “box in ’’ the needle.
4. The bearing is the number indicated at the index pointer.
Triangulation / Locating where you are
A common use for the compass is plotting a position on the map (usually indicating where you are). To do this, you need to identify two prominent features on the map that you can see on the field. Two mountainpeaks are usually used.
1. First, get the field bearing of the peak A and on an orienting map, plot the bearing making sure that the lines goes through peak A. You are somewhere along this line.
2. Next, get the field bearing of peak B and plot it on the map, again making sure that the line goes through peak B.
3. Your exact position on the map is the intersection of these two lines.
As with all other aspects of navigation, you should use your common sense here. For example, you are on a river and you have identified that river on the map. All you need is one field bearing of a prominent feature; you are where that line of bearing and the river intersect. Sometimes, a compass is not even needed if the navigator is good interpreter of contour lines.
Route Finding
This is a necessary step before going on any trip into the mountains or wilderness. It goes without saying that you usually take the easiest, though not necessarily the shortest, route to your destination but you should also incorporate possible water sources, scenic spots, and ideal campsites for the night when planning which route to take.The shortest distance between two points is a straight line. In mountaineering, the straight line isn’t necessarily the easiest. There are many qualities to a good route, and the fastest route sometimes misses the whole point and spirit of mountaineering.
Route finding is not necessarily something you do once you get lost. It begins at home or at the pre-climb meeting. This involves getting familiar with the map and creating a picture in your mind of how the mountain will look like once you get there.
Gentler slopes mean easier trekking. Keep river crossings to a minimum. If you are boxed in by steep slopes, try contouring - walking across the slope moving neither upward nor downward - until you reach a gentler slope.
The finished route will look like a broken line weaving its way from the jump - off point to the point of destination, most like a peak. You can now base your itinerary on the selected route. Note down the direction and distances so that you can periodically check if you’re following the correct trail.
Terrain - The mountain environment rarely presents clear vistas where one can have a pick of prominent features to take bearings on. Maximize sighting opportunities and plan the route ahead before you start the next trek. Try to create immediate objectives, break down the whole route, and plan accordingly. Take note of changes in the slope. In heavily forested areas especially at mid-altitude, changes in terrain can be abrupt. Don’t be deceived and stick to your plan. It is important to relate the map to your position so try to get a good view of the surroundings from time to time. This, of course, is not always possible unless you are planning a new route up the grasslands of Maculot.
Tree Climbing - One of the most obvious and practical remedies is to practice your climbing skills on a tree. No need for protection systems and belays here but take extra care in choosing your tree. Its height should be at par with the surrounding vegetation. Most healthy trees at mid-altitude are quite sturdy and can easily support a few members of the party. On sharper slopes check the root system. And check to see if ever an act of god strikes the tree down, the fall you would take would not result in your untimely demise.
Wind, rain, and the works - One thing is sure when climbing tropical forest: you will almost always be wet. Either from the precipitation of your perspiration. There are many types of rain. There is the shower type of rain that persist until if finds hole in the seams of your raingear. Map reading in this type of rain is possible if a provisional shelter for reading the map can be found. Even then it can be tricky. The howling type of rain is the nemesis. In these instances either finding a rock shelter or setting up the tent are probably the most acceptable solutions if the succeeding attempts at route finding seem fiendish and foolhardy.
The key is planning the route way in advance, taking advantage of good breaks in the weather. Plan with the group every evening and set achievable targets and probable scenarios for the following day. Have the wisdom to know when to stop and accept Natures superiority. If howling rain strikes the team on an exploratory climb, assess the best place to stop. Setting up camp amongst the shelter of trees is desirable but check for falling branches. In the evening, check everybody’s asses to see who has the birthmark.
In low visibility situations, be very careful when marching on. If the route plan has been made and the general bearing and features to follow have been determined, create immediate objectives to achieve some distance, if you really must. Sometimes it is best to slightly offset specially if the objective is a very prominent feature, like a ridge for instance.
Part 4: Global Positioning System (GPS)
Part 5: Lost?
S.T.O.P. – Stop, Think, Observe and Plan.Assessing the situation - The first thing is to STOP. Are you really lost? Or has the vegetation has changed? When you started the trek you knew exactly where you were, ditto for most of the route until the present predicament. A good navigator never really gets lost. Assess the state of the team. Is anyone injured? Everybody in good spirits? Anybody in danger in missing an important dinner date on Monday? Is everyone together? A group has a very good chance of rectifying the situation. It is the lone mountaineer separated from the group that’s in deep shit, for obvious reasons.
Following the trail - Discuss the last known position and backtrack if time and weather will allow it. Work your way from there, always coming back to the known spot if the going gets rough. If you are alone and not sure where you are, mark your position and keep coming back to it if you can’t seem to find the right trail. It would be easier to find you that way.
Bivouac - A highly taxed and stressed team hours away from a known position would be better off bivouac than trashing about getting more disoriented by the minute. If provisions and shelter are adequate, there is no reason to get distressed.
Most Trodden Trails
What to do if you are really lost for days?
Part 6: Orienteering
It is defined as a game utilizing land navigation skills, stamina, and speed. There are two basic types of orienteering courses.Course Orienteering
This is a footrace where the participant should pass through several stations called control points (CP) in a predetermined sequence. At the starting point, the participants are given a compass and sometimes a map on which he / she may plot the course to be followed. The participant is then given the bearing the distance to CP # 1 - the first station. Upon reaching CP # 1, the participant is given a code to write down (as to verify his / her reaching the station) and the bearing the distance to the next CP. This is repeated until the final CP, which is also the starting point, is reached. The person who completes the entire course with the least error and in the shortest time wins.Sometimes, a description of the CP is given with the bearing and direction. CP’s are marked by a red and white orienteering flag.
Point Orienteering
The bearings and distances to all control points are given at the starting point and the participant then plots these on the given map. The participant then make his own route, passing by as many CP’s as possible. CP’s far away from the starting point are worth more points than the nearby CP’s.Part 7: Exercises
Following a Bearing
When orienteering, try to travel in the exact direction of your bearing. If you take one stride to the left during the course of your travel, you will end up one step to the left of your control point. If you deviated far enough, you will miss the CP completely. Since you cannot keep your eyes constantly of your compass make sure you were following the correct heading, it is better to select landmarks (a tall tree, bush, etc.) which lie along the bearing you are following. Upon reaching that landmark, select another prominent landmark along your bearing until you reach the CP. Don’t forget to count your strides.If an obstacle (gully, thick vegetation, structures, etc…) blocks your path, you can go around it, but remember two things;
(1) First, compensate for your deviation - if you took about 20 strides to the right of your bearing, you must take another 20 spaces to the left once you have cleared the obstacle. An alternative is to (2) Compensate for your circuitous route by subtracting the number of strides you actually took.
The same principle applies to mountaineering. If you follow a trail that goes to the right of your bearing, you must move back towards the left as to compensate for the deviation.
Compass Bearing
You need a compass and a coin for this activity.Stand in an open area (a parking lot will do) and place the coin between your feet. Pick an arbitrary bearing, for example - 20- degrees. Walk 15 paces towards that direction, and then stop. Add 120-degrees to your initial bearing; in this case the result is 140-degrees, then walk another 15 paces. At the end of this distance, add-120 degrees again to the previous bearing; resulting to 260-degrees. Walk another 15 paces and at the end of that distance, the coin should be at your feet again.
Fit the Map to the Terrain
The biggest mistake of map readers is looking at the map, assuming that they are in a certain place, and then looking around for landmarks that will confirm that they are indeed in that assumed location. This mistake is called “fitting the terrain to the map”. This is doing things backwards.To avoid this pitfall, don’t open the map right away. Begin by checking your location; are you in a place where you can see your terrain in several directions? Move a little way off your route if necessary; get away from trees and other obstacles that can obstruct your vision. Then look at the mountains, streams, ridges, and other geographical features to get a sense of how their positions relate to one another. Imagine how would they look on a topographic map. Once you have an idea of how the area will appear, you can then fit the map to the terrain, and not the other way around.
This is not a play of words. If you look at the map first, you establish certain features you intend to locate at the terrain, and with that preconceived notion, you’ll probably find things that fit and overlook more important features that don’t.
Part 8: Special Land Navigational Techniques
Offsetting or Aiming Off
Following a compass bearing is possible only to an accuracy of 10-20 degrees, even less in rough terrain. If you attempt to walk directly to the river fork, you could end up on either side and not know which way to go to reach the fork. By offsetting or aiming well to the right of your compass bearing, you can be sure that when you reach the river, you need to turn left to reach the fork.Handrail
It is difficult to navigate towards your destination if it lies behind a hill and/or is obscured and blocked by vegetation, making a direct bearing is impossible. Instead of being gung ho about it and forging ahead on the direct bearing, you can search for a linear feature n the map that will lead you to your target area.Landforms commonly used are rivers, ridges, and roads.
First take a bearing to the handrail feature, and then walk to it.
If the handrail does not lead directly to your objective, “jump-off” on a compass bearing for the remaining distance, using the hilltop reference.
Contouring
It is extremely difficult to follow a compass bearing when the path repeatedly rises and falls in elevation.Contouring uses the compass as a general reference point for direction, while you follow a contour line on the map, staying at a constant elevation while you negotiate hills and ridges. In this case the hilltop lies exactly in the path, you can walk along the contours of this hill and check the back bearing with the hilltop as your reference point to get back on track.
looks like all the pictures from the original article have been taken down ! You'll have to use imagination instead !
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